lyio'i^ INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF AGRICULTURE Bureau of Agricuwurai, Intei,ugence and Plant Diseases INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF THE SCIENCE AND PRACTICE OF AGRICULTURE MONTHLY BULLETIN OF AGRICULTURAL INTELLIGENCE AND PLANT DISEASES YEAR VII. - NUMBER 7 JULY 19 1 6 ROME PRINTING OFFICE OF THE INSTITUTE 1916 Publications of the International Institute of Agriculture. I. Publications for Sale. Annual StnsU A. — MONTHLY OK WEEKLY PUBLICATIONS. 8ub«crlptJon numbei 1. International Crop Report and Agriculturvl Statistics {Bulletin of A cHciiUural and Commercial Statistics) , published monthly in English, French, German, Spanish and Italian, i6mo . Frs. 6 0,60 2. International Review of the Science and Practice of Agriculture {MoiUhly Bulletin of Agricultural Intelligence and Plant Diseases), published monthly in English, French, German, .Spanish and Italian. (Each mmiber consists of about 180 pages, i6mo) » 18 2 — 3. International Review of Agricultural Economics (Monthly Bulletin of Economic and Social Intelligence), published monthly in English, French, German, Spanish and Itiilian. (Each number consists of about 150 pages, i6mo) » 18 2 — Subscription to all three Bulletins 36 B. — YEAR BOOKS. I. Annuaire International de Statistique Agricole pour 1910 (Inter- national Year Book of Agricultural Statistics, 1910). (1912, XI«VIII -(- 327 pages, i6mo) Frs. 5 — Do. Vol. II, Years 1911-1912. {1914, XXXIV + 624 pp. i6mo) . ... • 5 — Do. Vol. Ill, Years 1913-1914. (1915, XI,IV + 788 pp. i6mo) ... • 5 — a. Annuaire International de I<6gislation Agricole, ist. Year, 191 1, (Inter- national Year Book of Agricultural Inctatvs, a Coleopterous Pest of Beans in Apulia, Italj'. — 833. Ligynis jossator and L. fossor, Co- leoptera attacking Sugar Cane, in Brazil. — 834. The ITrMiii :mm1 Ajiri' ■■ - 92() JIT1I],IX-];AX.\I'I':]-T Xotwithstauding these mutual advantages, however, the number of such tenants shows a tendenc)^ to decHne, and the difficulty of finding new cnes becomes greater and greater. Consequently, agricultural labour con- tinues to be supplied by farm hands, male and female, engaged by the year or for six months, but in the case of large agricultural estates, chiefly by " Statare ", or married labourers, who receive wages in money and in kind and are also bound to allow their wives to assist, for an agreed payment, in milking the cows and in harvest work. In all cases, however, the en- deavour is to reduce the nimiber of labourers on fixed contract as much as possible, replacing them by da}- or job labourers. The Cultivated Land and its Utilisation. The total area of land in Sweden is about 101,400,000 acres di\'ided as follows : Table II. — Division of Land in Sweden. Area % of total in acres area Gardens 113 671 o.i Arable land 9 085 867 9.0 Natural grass-lancl 3 148054 3.1 Forest 54 942 685 54.2 Unproductive Land 34 107 213 33.6 Xevertheless, owing to the great size of the country (extending between latitudes 55^2' and 6904') and its geographical and geological configuration, there is a great difference in the relative proportions of the different kinds of land both between north and south and between the mountain and fo- rest stretches of country with moraine soil in the interior and the clayey or sometimes sandy plains bordering the coasts between the Baltic and the Kattegat. The extremes are represented by the province of Scania, where cultivated land forms as much as 60 per cent, of the total area, and that of Norrbotten, in which less than 0.4 per cent, of the land is cultivated. The area of cultivated land is continually on the increase, chiefly through the re- clamation of marshes, but the proportion of increase shows a constant de- cline. 25 years ago the increase was usually 74 133 acres per annum, but during the last ten years it has onty been 24 711 acres per year. This is a consequence of the increased cost of labour. The bulk of the reclama- tion work is carried out with the assistance of the Government, which in 1915 for instance appropriated I 400 000 kroner for loans with that object,- and 2 350 000 kroner for grants not subject to repayment. Clearing work is principally carried out on the peat soils, which have gene up greatly in value for cultivation purposes since rational fertilisation was rendered possible by the use of artificial manures. The results obtain- ed in this direction were due to a large extent to the investigations of the Swedish JSIarsh Reclamation Society. Small farms show a continuous increase at the expense of the large ones, the number of which is constantly decreasing. The former total about 360 000, besides which there are about 140 000 small holdings, mostly al- THE PRESKXT STATE OF AGRICULTrRIC IX SWHDEX mj lotted to labourers against payment in the form of labour for the landlord. It is calculated that on about 70 per cent, of the independent farms, and on all the holdings, the area of cultivated land does not exceed 25 acres, which means that the}' can be worked without hired labour. Farms ave- raging 25 to 124 acres of cultivated land represent 28 per cent and large estates with more than 124 acres of cultivated land a little more than 2 per cent, of the total number. The area of cultivated land is di\'ided as follows among the different classes : one half belongs to farms of medium size ; about one fourth to small farms ; and the same to large estates. This distribution, however, varies greatly in different parts of the country, the large estates, particularly manorial estates, lying chiefly in the fertile plains, while the small ones are in the uplands where the cultivated land is scattered among the mountains, rock}- hills, marshes and streams. In the northern forest di.stricts in particular there are hardly any but small ten- ant farmers, the land belonging mostly to big forest estates. Increased facilities of transit and industrial development have also to some extent affected the distribution of agricultural property, small farms being numerous in the neighbourhood of large towns, industrial centres and railway junctions. In Sweden the land is for the most part tilled by the owners themsel- ves, in the proportion of about 85 per cent.; the larger the acreage of farms >; the greater the proportion worked by tenant farmers. The position of the latter towards the landlord has been greatly improved by the new law'S of 1907 and 1909 on tenant farmers. In the northern pro\dnces especially, where a large proportion of the land belongs to commercial companies, the rights of the landlord have been restricted in favour of the tenant farmer. Measures for the Benefit of Small Farms. The great increase in the num- ber of small farms is partly due to the attempts made to stem townward migration. In order to facilitate land settlement by small farmers, the State has for some time been selling the land in small plots. All Crown domains not jaelding a minimum w^hich was fixed in 1874 at 200 and in 1892 at 600 kroner, are put up for sale when the farm leases expire. Under the de- crees of 1894 and 1S99, moreover, those parts of Crown domains which are suitable for forming separate farms must be split up and put up for sale or let. Between 1894 and 1912, about 1800 small farms were sold in the central and southern part of the country. In the northern provinces, portion of forest domains suitable for cultivation are allotted rent free for the first 15 years, and for a moderate fixed rent during a further 50 years. The pri- mary object of these grants was to provide the public a tithorities with the necessary labour for forest maintenance, but no obligation in this respect is imposed on the settlers. The number of holdings of this kind is about I 200. Divi.sion into small holdings is greaitly facilitated by the .simplicity of legal formalities, chiefly owing to a law of 1896 which enables cultivated land to be separated from forest, the latter being more difficult to work in small plots. This law however does not apply to the northern pro\'inces, where agriculture could hardly be self-supporting without the contribution y28 juhi,ix-])Ax.\fj:i,'i' of the forests to the huaucial return. Tlie Government has encouraged the increase of small farms by a system of financial facilities. Loans are granted up to the amount of 5/6ths of the value of the land and buildings, at 3 per cent interest with repayment over a long period. Between 1905 and 1913, about 8 900 loans were granted representing a total slighth' above 25 million kroner. For a quarter of a century the small farmer has also been provided for in other respects by the public authorities, having been the chief one to profit by the subsidies granted for the reclamation of waste land and the development of stock rearing, and also by the assistance furnished bj' scien- tific agriculturists in the service of the State or rural economy Societies. The Government furthermore allocates every year a certain sum (now 400 000 kroner) for the encouragement of the small farmer in the followinp waj^s : (i) Premiums for the clearing of small areas of brushland etc. (2) Competitions between small farms with premiums and conditional loans (totalling about 50 000 kroner per year) for works of improvement ; if the work has been carried out satisfactorily within the time fixed, the re- payment of the loan is postponed. (3) Subsidies to Inspection Societies and Societies for the proper keeping of books of account on farms. (4) Educational courses (in 1913, 264 courses at a total expenditure of 71 000 kroner) and excursions for agriculturists, male and female (in 1913, 810 persons took part), with subsidies totalling 61 000 kroner. Crops. — The types of crop grown differ greatly according to climatic and soil conditions, and general farming standard. The simplest methods of cultivation are practised in the north. Grain growing is very limited there owing to the short summer ; it only extends over 10 to 30 per cent. of cultivated land, and m.ostly comprises spring cereals; chiefly 4-rowed barley which is the earliest, while winter wheats, which occupy the land for 2 summers, are less suitable. Fallowing is only applied before the winter wheat. Towards the south, oats gain the upper hand. Artificial grass-lands cover a wide area (averaging 60 per cent, of the ciiltivated area) in the northern provinces, and are left uncleared for a longer or shorter pe- riod of time (up to 20 years) in the more northerly parts. In the central and southern portions of the country there is greater equality of distribution of the different cultivations. In proportion as the general farming level improves, fallowing and laying down to grass decreases, while on the other hand grain crops and pulse crops for green or dry forage increase ; above all there is a large increase in root crops or forage. In those parts of the country where farming practice is on a lower plane the most usual rotations are as follows : i) fallow ; 2) winter cereal (rye and wheat) ; 3-5) artificial grass-lands; 6-7) spring cereals (oats and bar- ley), pulses (peas and vetches) and mixed crops. An almost equal propor- tion (about -j-O %) of the land in this part of the country is under grain and THE PRESENT STATE OF AGRICULTURE IX SWEDEN 929 leys, 10 to 15 per cent, of the land being fallow, 3 to 4 percent planted with potatoes and 0.5 to 1.5 per cent with forage root crops. In the districts where farming practice reaches the highest level, f allov\ing often disappears, the soil being tilled by harrowing and ploughing in, especial- ly after the hay and green forage crop ; the land is only sown to grass for one or two 3-ears, and to the extent of 15 to 20 percent of the acreage cultivated. The greater part of the land is under grains and pulses, cropped when ripe or as green forage. Finalh", particular attention is gi\ en to root crops, which may occupy up to 25 per cent of the arable land. As examples of the rotations practised in these districts there may be mentioned: i) green forage (peas, vetches, oats and barley) ; 2) winter cereals (particularly wheat); 3) toot crops (sugar beet and forage roots) ; 4) spring cereal ; 5) grass ; 6) spring cereal — or else i) root crops ; 2) spring cereal ; 3) grass or green forage ; 4) winter cereal. The distribution of the different types of cultivation varies greath' according to the quantity of soil and the climate. Winter cereals are chiefly cultivated in the plains, where the}' take up 15 to 20 per cent of the cultiva- ted land, wheat only in clayey soils, and rye in sandy soils also, where, to- gether with potatoes, it forms the most important crop. In marshy soils winter cereals do not stand the climate well. Wheat, which is more exact- ing than rye as regards the nature of the soil, on the other hand furnishes a greater yield under favourable conditions and its cultivation has been consid- erably extended of late years. Barley and oats are only grown as spring cereals, barley, (4-rowed) chiefly in high lands with light ston}- soil ; oats everywhere, except in the north of the country, cover the greater part (up to 30-40 %) of the cultivated land, being chiefly planted on lean and also marshy soils. 2-rowed barley is only grown in the plains, chiefly on the best soils with a sufficient propor- tion of lime. Peas and vetches are almost everywhere grown mixed with oats and barley, rarely alone ; this crop is chiefly raised on soils rich in lime. Beans are entirely limited to the lands skirting the west coast. Potatoes are cultivated on all the farms of the country, generally in proportion to local need, so that almost everywhere the same proportion of the land is allotted to this crop (3 to 5 %). In the southern provinces alone, where the soil is sandy, the area planted with potatoes is considera- ably larger, the excess of the crop over local consumption being used cliiefly for the manufactiire of alcohol and starch. Root crops are mostly grown in the south of the country, where the sugar beet, under intensive culti- vation, is of great importance from the point of view of rural economy. In Scania this crop occupies 10 per cent of the cultivated land, while in the other provinces it rarely exceeds 1.5 to 2 per cent. It receives special attention owing to its importance in crop rotation and for stock rearing. Natural grass-lands were at one time very extensive, but have now largely been brought under cultivation, the remainder now occupying only one-third of the productive surface. Most of these grass-lands receive no culti\ ation or manuring whatever and their yield is consequently 930 JUHIJX-DAXNFELT rather low, probably not averaging more than 12 cwt. of hay per acre.. Of late years, following German example, the grass-lands have begun to be used for grazing on rational lines, producing a considerable increa.se in their yield. Seeds. — Grain and leguminous (pea, bean and vetch) seeds as well as seed potatoes are obtained from home crops exclusively. Until lately on the other hand, seeds of forage plants (including root crops) were mainlj^ im- ported. This is of course a weak point, but it does not mean that with the majority of these plants there is any difficulty in growing good qualit}^ seeds within the country. On the contrary, Swedish seeds are held in high esteem because of the certainty of their being suited to the country, and of the guarantees obtainable as to purity. With regard to pasture grasses, the majority of the most common spe- cies, timothy, red clover and hybrid clover are cultivated. Red clover is distinguished into the early and late varieties, the former being used for sowing leys of i or 2 years duration, particularly in southern Sweden, and the latter for longer periods. Both late and hybrid clover seeds are grown chiefly in the country, while those of early red clover are almost entirely imported. They are termed " Silesian clover seeds ", but they are also imported from Bohemia, Moravia, and especially Russia. French, Italian and American red cloveis are wanting in powers of endurance, and are therefore not rated ver}^ high. To facilitate verifying the origin of seeds, a law of 1909 provides that red clover, hybrid clover and timothy seeds must when imported be dyed red with eosin. »Seeds of pasture grasses (except timothy seeds) and for root crops are still mostly imported, but during the last few years the most common forage plants in addition to timothy such as cocksfoot, rye grass and brome grass, as well as radishes, turnips, carrots and sugar and forage beets have begun to be grown for seeds to an ever increasing extent and with perfect success. Seed testing. — There are 17 establishments receivi'';g Government grants and operating according to official regulations which arc substanti- ally the same in Scandinavian countries. This testing has been carried on for 40 years (since 1877), and as a result the quality of the seeds put on the market is generally fairly satisfactory, and adulteration is rare. Yields. — The averages in Sweden (wheat, 16.72 cwt per acre, T\e 12.74 barley 12.74, oats 11.94, potatoes 79.65, sugar beet 238.96, for?ge roots 278.78) are almost the same as the average figures for Europe. They are below those of other Germanic countries, but higher than of Slavonic and Latin countries, excep: Belgiiun. These averages, however, like the level of agriculture, vary greath in the different parts of the countr}'. In the best regions the> approximate to the crop value of the coimtries leading in this respect. The constant increase of yield recorded during the last decade justifies the hope that progress will continue. This progress in yield is largely due to the fact that the old seeds have been replaced by better grades coming mainly from the Svalof Insti- tute, which enjoys the highest repute even outside the country for THE PRESENT vSTATE OF AGRICULTURE IN SWEDEN 93 1 its work of improvement of cjops (i). The varieties of oats and barley which are most grown in the country give on the average a crop 15 to 29 per cent, bigger than that of the old variety, and the latest improved wheat, though only grown to a small extent so far, shows a still higher superiority over the old varieties. Of course progress in this respect is chiefly observ- able in the southern and most fertile portions of vSweden, while the diffi- culty of increasing the yield by seed improvement increases in proportion as the summer becomes shorter, the soil poorer and the climate drier. Agricultural Improvements. — The increase of yield is partly the result of land improvements and progress in cultivation work. Drainage is of the utmost importance in a country where the land is so hilly and broken and the soil is as retentive of moisture as clay and peat soils. This matter however, is still largely neglected, a large portion of the land being drained b}' open ditches onl}^ and drainage by covered conduits and pipes mak- ing but slow progress owing to the high cost of labour. To encourage cov- ered drainage on small farms, the Government grants loans at low interest. Progress is more marked as regards ploughing, which is now done deep- er, generally to at least 7 ^/^ inches but often to 10 inches. Attention is also given to methodical utilisation of the soil moisture, which is of the ut- most importance in a country where the rainfall during the 6 summer months usualh' does not exceed 13.3 inches and during each month of the spring and early summer {Ma> and June) is only 0.78 to 1.57 inches. In ploughing during spring and summer the principles of dry farming are generally applied, that is to say, the soil is usually consolidated so that the capillary moisture can rise from the deeper strata, and the surface layer is loosened to prevent loss of moisture by evaporation. The striking development of the industry of agricultural machinery in Sweden has been a factor in more effective and scientific tillage. This industry supplies the country with machines and implements which meet farming requirements, and it has now made such strides that whereas in former years a considerable quantity of such machinery was imported, it is now exported to a value of 12 to 15 million kroner. Manmes and Manuring. — Liming. The regions where the land is made up of limestone rocks, belonging chiefly to the Silurian formation, far exceed in fertility those poor in lime and belonging mainly of archaic origin. The manures used in these regions are, to a larg^ extent, either finely ground limestone or lime, and also, but only to a small extent nowa- days, marl. In order to promote the use of these effective means of in- creasing fertility, the Government makes a grant towards the cost of car- riage of lime for manuring purposes. Farmyard Manures. — As, comparatively speaking, there is plenty of livestock, there is no shortage of stable manure, which has latterly been put to more effective use. Instead of manuring only once per rotation, as was done formerly, the manure is now spread over several breaks, so as to (i) .Sec June 1913 ; pp. S51-860, The Swedish Svalof Institute, by N. lljahnar Nilsson. p]). 861-870 ; Wheat and Oat seleetion at Svalof, bj- IT. Xilsson-I'lhle. 93^ JUHLIX-DAXXFELT. - THE PRESENT STATE OF AGRICULTURE render its effect more uniform and complete. Greater care is also taken to preserve the fertilising elements, especially the nitrogen, in the manure. The stable manure is usuall}- mixed with peat litter and compost. It has become more and more usual to provide the dung pit with a concrete bottom, and , on small farms, to keep the dung heap in a special shed. The use of chemical fertilisers is still verv^ limited. On marshy soils ver\- poor in phosphorus and potash, potassium phosphates and salts are still used, and on soils poor in humus, for grain and root crops, phosphates and Chili nitrate or cyanamide are also in general use, but the quantities are too small to produce a maximum yield. The chemical manures are chiefly imported from abroad. Superphosphate and cyanamide, however, are manufactured within the country- in quantities exceeding home consump- tion, the crude phosphates for the former being in turn imported. Two steel works also produce phosphated slag, but the supph' from this source does not suffice for even half the consumption. Attempts have been made at different times to obtain potassic manures from the abundant strata of rocks with high potash contents in the countn.-, but without success hitherto. The quahty of chemical fertilisers is tested at 9 chemical Stations which receive State grants. SECOND PART. ABSTRACTS AGRICULTURAL INTELUGEXCE GENERAL IKFORMATIOX. 7-1 - Creation of a School of Silkworm Rearing in the Republic of Colombia. — a\- I'lita agiicula, Or^ano del MuiistLrio dc Ai^nciiituia y Ci vuicio, Year i, Xo. ii, pp. 642-644. Bogota, Xovember 191 5. By law Xo. 13 of 1915 the Government of Colombia provided for the encouragement of the silk industry which may prove a source of wealth to the country. In pursuance of this law, some trials of mulberry growing and silkworm nurseries having proved successful at Bucaramanga, there was created in that town, b}- decree No. 1989 of 1915, a School of silkworm rearing to which an annual appropriation of i860 pesos (£387.10 s. at par) has been made, to which [:here will be added the proceeds of the silk produced, woven and sold by the School. 722 - The Organization of the Cuban Agricultural Experiment Station (Progress of Agri- ciiltiiral Sciaice in Cuba;. — Cr.\uxey J. T. (Director of the Cuban Agricultural Experi- ment Station). Modern Cuba, Vol. 5 (S), Xo. 2, pp. 2^^-46, Ha\ana, Feb , 1016. The Cuban Agriculttiral Experiment Station was established at Santiago de las Veges in 1904 by the first President of the Republic of Cuba. The Station is di\aded into Departments, each with its chief, assistants, and necessary laboratory and ether facihties, as follows. 1) Agriculture. — To this Department is given the experimental work with the more important crops, such as sugar cane, tobacco, com and the various crops used for cattle feed, and green manuring. 2) Horticulture. — This has charge of the growing cf fruits and ve- getables, and the care of the grounds. 3) Botany. — This Department has gathered and cares for an her- barium of Cuban plants, and ha? charge of the study of forest trees, their distribution and utilization, vegetable fibres, medicinal plants, etc. AGRICrXTTRAL EEr CATION DEVELOPMENT OF .\GRICUXTTTRE IX DIFFERENT COUNTRIES 934 ACRICl'LTTTRAL MKTKOROLOGY 4) Chemistry. — Analysis of soils, fertilizer and agricultural products; not only those originating in the Station but those sent from without. This Department also has certain well-defined fertility problems for investiga- tion. 5) Pathology and Entomology. — This is one of the most important Departments, since it has to deal with the difficult problems of the study of insect and plant diseases and proper methods for eradicating them. The problem has been more difficult owing to the fact that the tropics offer ideal conditions for the development of plant enemies, both insect and fungoid, and since so little work of this kind has been done in the tropics. 6) Animal diseases. — The laboratory carrying on investigations in animal diseases, and engaged in preparing vaccines and serums, was estab- lished under the direct supervision of the office of the Secretary of Agricul- ture and was transferred to the Station in March 1914. While it has the stud}^ of animal diseases in general, its principal work at the present time is the preparation of vaccines used in combating anthrax, black-leg, and hog cholera. 7) Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry. — This Department is charged with the introduction and breeding of the best breeds of domestic animals, the stud}' of butter and cheese making, the feeding values of various Cuban-grown feeds, and also the study of animal diseases. While each Department has its own apparatus and problems, yet there is no fine line of demarcation between them and the closest cooperation among all officers is fostered. CROPS AND CUIvTlVATION. AGRicDLTURAL 723 " TemperatuFe Changes due to Terrestrial Radiation and Relation of the Latter METEOROLOGY tO Plant GrOWth. — roster Oiorgio, ill Atti ddlii Rcalc Accadcmia dci Cn'or-otili di Firenze, 163rd Year, Part I, pp. 1-27. Florence, January 1916. The altitude chosen for meteorological observatories, their inevitable northerly exposure, and the arrangements for protecting the instruments from local influences, create an artificial environment differing too much from that of plant life Consequently the information gained hardly admits of application to such life. The proper course would be for all determina- tions made for purposes of agriciilture (such as mean temperature of seasons, months and days, mean and absolute extremes, heat variaticns at short intervals causing variabilit}^ of climate) to be conducted under heat, light, wind and moisture conditions as near as possible to those of plant life. Maximum and minimum thermometers are best placed ih the open air. If there is only one instrument it should be put at a height of 3 ft. 3 ins.; a second, if available, at a height of 6 ft. 6 ins. A third might very usefully be put under high timber trees at a height of 4 ft. 11 ins., in order to ascertain what amount of protection from terrestrial radiation these trees afford to plants under cover of them. In his garden of Otonella, island of Elba, Italy, the writer found that a thermometer placed under the dense SOIL PHYSICS, CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOI,OG'S' 935 foliage of a carob tree shows minimum temperatures 3 to 4 degrees Centi- grade above those cf a thermometer in the open air. In the same garden, from March to September 1913, observations were taken of the daily variations of temperature b}' means of a registering thermo- meter 20 ins. from the ground, receiving all the heat of the direct solar rays and those reflected by the soil, exactly as in the case of plants. These observ- ations show dail}^ ranges sometimes approximating 40" C. (104° F). This confirms the great capacity possessed by plants for adapting themselves to wide variations of temperature. In another series cf observations made in igii, 1912, 1914 and 1915, the amount of terrestrial radiation in the belt of air in closest contact with the soil was determined. A thermograph was placed in the open air 20 in. from the ground, and another a short distance away 55 in. from the ground, facing north, and protected from the sun and terrestrial radiation. Thus the differences in the fall of temperature, due in particular to morning radia- tion, were ascertained. The results are set out in a series of tables, and the following conclusions are based on them. (i) Using two registering thermometers, A and B, at the above re- spective distances from the ground, the minimum daily temperature is regis- tered by that nearest to the ground. This fact comes out very clearly, the difference often being most marked and not subject to anj^ exceptions. (2) The annual mean of 470 observations calculated from the monthly average minima was 19.2 degrees by thermograph A (4 % ft. from the ground) and 16.6 degrees by thermograph B (i ft. 7 ^ in. from the ground). (3) The annual average of the absolute monthly minimum was 15.7° by thermograph A and 130 by B. (4) The absolute minimum for the 4 vears was 11. f)'^ by A and 6.40 by B. (5) The differences between the minimums of the two thermographs in the 470 observations, taking their average and their maximum value, are summed up as follows : {a) The monthly :nean difference A — B was 2.3° C. (b) The mean of the maximum monthly differences was 3.8" ; (c) The absolute maximum difference throughout the period in question reached the high figure of 5.4"^*. These results prove beyond question the importance of the study, in connection with vegetation, of the temperature changes due to terrestrial radiation, which are perfectly distinct from the general cooling of the atmosphere and occur in the lower air strata, the medium of plant life. 724 - Soluble Non-Protein Nitrogen of Soil. — potter r. s. and Snyder r. s. (I(»\vu State College lixperiiueut Station), in Journal of Ai^ricuUwal Research, Vol. VI, Xo. 2, pp. 61-64. Washington, D. C, April 10, i<)i6. The writers conclude from their researches into the nitrogenous sub- stances of the soil that information may be obtained relative to the degree of decomposition of the organic matter in the soil by determining the propor- tion of nitrogenous compounds left in the alkali extract of the soil after precipitation of the protein by a suitable reagent. With this problem in SOIL PHYSICS, CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOLOGY 93^J '^^"^IL PHYSICS, CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOLOGY mind, they determined the nitrogen in alkali extracts of soil with or without the addition of proteins and other organic nitrogenous compounds. The proteins were precipitated by trichloracetic acid. The principal conseqence of the results obtained appears to be that the alkali extract docs not contain a definite group of nitrogenous com- pounds. In an}^ case, however, the non-protein fraction remaining in solution after precipitation by trichloracetic acid ma}' contain most of the simpler nitrogenous compounds, and therefore its determination would give an index of the degree of decomposition of organic matter in the soil. A bibliography of 8 works completes the article. 725 - Influence of Resin and Tannin on the Balance of Nitrogen in the Soil.— koch Alfred ami Oelsner Alice, in Ccn'rulblutt fiir B(iktcnoJos,ic, Parasitcnkundc iind In- 'ck'ionskrankhcilcn, Vol. 45, No. 1-5, pp. 107-11S. Jena, February 26, iyi6. In previous experimentation with forest soils (deciduous and coniferous respectively) one of the writers found that in soils containing nitric nitro- gen the proportion of the latter was reduced after adding tannin or resin. These two substances greatly reduced nitrification, but without stopping it completely. Tannin and resin being important products of vegetable metabolism, it was proposed to study their influence on the soil on the basis of previous experiments. The fact that a soil fertilised with siUphate of ammonia contains only a small amount of nitric nitrogen when the above two substances are present ma 3' be explained in two ways : a) the two substances may unfavour- ably affect the nitrifying power of the bacteria ; h) nitrification is not impeded, but the nitrates formed are afterwards decomposed. The former hypothesis seemed the more probable, tannin and resin being used as antiseptics in leather tanning. Influence of Resin. In Giltay's solution citric acid was replaced b}" resin, after which bacteria obtained either from horse dung or from the soil were put in. A few days later a reduction of nitrates by the bacteria was found to have taken place. In the same solution without bacteria no reduction of the nitrates was observed, from which it is concluded that resin exerts no chemical action en the nitrates. In further experiments 5 gr. of resin and 0.025 &^- o^ sodium nitrate were added to 100 gr. of dry earth. After 4 weeks there was no further trace of nitrate in the soil. The total nitrogen content being unaltered, it is concluded that the bacteria had not decomposed the nitrate into free nitro- gen, but had used it to build up their cells. This very interesting fact proves that resin, which is so difficult of solution in water, supplies energy to the denitrif^dng bacteria enabling them to reduce the nitrates in the soil. The experiments were repeated both with Giltay and Raulin solu- tions, and it was found that the latter, owing to the potassium carbonate it contained, promoted the conversion of nitrates a little more than the former. The behaviour of resin in the presence of alkalies also showed that when al- kalies or salts are present in the soil, the resin is decomposed into substances which can be utilised by the bacteria. Resin is therefore clearl}" a source SOIL PHYSICS, CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOLOGY 937 of energ}' to the denitrifying bacteria of the soil, and for this reason coni- ferous forest soils contain less nitrates than others. Infltience of Tannin. For 2 months the nitrification of soil samples to which 5 % and 10 % respectively of tannin + 2 grms of ammonium sulphate had been added was studied. It was found that the soil treated with 10 % of tannin contained less nitrates than that treated with 5 % of tannin, just as in the observ^ations relating to resin. The same experi- ments al.so showed that the organisms which converted the nitrates of the soil utilised tannin as a source of energy. It becomes clearly evident that a soil rich in tannin must be poor in nitrates. The studies undertaken in order to ascertain the soil organisms which utilise both tannin and nitrates disclosed the presence of a fungus, Aspergillus niger, sometimes accom- panied by other fungi. Contrary to the general belief, this Aspergillus abounds in the soil, but only works under given conditions, namely when the soil is rich in tannin. It decomposes the latter and reduces the nitrates to ni- trites. Sugar is the component of tannin which it uses, but there are pro- bably others also. The presence of calcium carbonate increase its decom- posing power. Like bacteria, Aspergillus niger uses nitrates as a source of nitrogen, and also salts of ammonia when the soil contains tannin. The latter therefore is injurious. As Aspergillus converts sugar into oxalic acid, the writers investigat- ed the influence of this acid on nitrification. Their conclusion is negative. 726 - Adsorption of Potassium by the Soil. — mc call a. g. ; hildebrandt f. ji. aud Johnston E. S. (J. Phys. Chem., XX, 51-63, 1916). Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry, VoL XXXV, No. 4, p. 267. London, Feb. 29,1916. To ascertain the effect of contact for a short time between a soil and a salt solution, and the influence of surface area upon the amount and rate of adsorption, an approximately five hundreth normal solution of potassium chloride was caused to percolate through a sandy loam soil, the potas,sium in the percolate being estimated colorimetrically. This soil was used in two different states : a) dried and passed through a 2 mm. sieve, and b) very finel}^ ground in a porcelain-lined ball mill for 4 da^'s. The apparatus consisted of a Pasteur-Chamberland filter tube surrounded by a brass jacket to hold the soil, the whole being enclosed in a porcelain-lined filter chamber, into which the solution was poured, and which was fitted with an air-tight cap in connection with an automobile tyre pump. The amount of potas- sium leached out of the soil samples by pure water was first ascertained : much more was dissolved from [b) than from [a); 20 gr. of (a) was treated with 250 cc. of the potassium chloride .solution containing 62 parts per. mil- lion cf potassium, the flow was maintained at a uniform rate, and the per- colate was collected in fractions cf 50 cc. The amount of adsorbed potassium was then immediately found by leaching with pure water, at the same rate of flow. The amounts of potassium in the first five percolates were, 40, 36, 40, 44, and 59 p. p. m. respectively, and the corresponding amounts retained p. p. m. of dry soil were 58,124,181, 226 and 233. The leaching action of water gave 7, ii, 9, 9, 8 p. p. m. of potassium in the fractions. With soil sample [b), it was found very unexpectedly, that the amount of potassium 938 SOIL PHYSICS, CHEMISTRY AXU .MICRORIOLOG Y in the solution was increased and not decreased by its contact with the soil and this increase was only partly accounted for by the solvent action of the solution on the potassium in the soil. Allowing for this correction; a potassium chloride solution containing 78 p. p. m. gave fractional perco- lates containing 107, gi, 82 and 92 p. p. m. of potassium. By the subse- quent leaching action of water, 39, 24, 21, 18, 15 and 18 p. p. m. of potas- sium were removed in the different fractions. The above case of negative adsorption is probably due to the solvent (water) being adsorbed more ra- pidly than the solute. Positive adsorption gradually diminishing and chang- ing to negative adsorption was observed by Williams for certain electro- lytes in water with blood charcoal, but the above is the first recorded instance of initial negative adsorption. 727 - Basic Exchange in Soils.— rice, F. e. (j. Phys. Chem., 20, 214-227, 1916). journal of the Society it Cluinical Industry, Vol. XXXV, No. 8, p. 480. I,ondon, April 29, 1916. Soils (33 grms.) from various parts of New York State were shaken with TOO cc. of normal potassium nitrate solution, allowed to stand over-night and filtered. In portions of the filtrate the hydrogen ions were determined by Storensen's method, and the lime requirement in pounds of lime per acre was determined by Veitch's method, while other portions were used for qualitative tests of the bases present, and titration with fiftieth normal sodium hydroxide solution. It was found that in the case of so-called " acid " soils part of the cation of the salt was absorbed, while an equi- valent quantit}' of bases from the soil was dissolved. The extracts thus obtained showed greater acidity than the original soils. This was attributed to the formation of hydrated aluminium oxide in the hydrolysis, together with equivalent quantities of free acid, and since the latter was strongly ionised while the former was lightly ionised and possibly in a colloidal state the resultant solution was distinctly acid. Water-soluble acid was found in only two samples of acid soils. Basic (as distinguished from "acid" soils) gave up to the salt solution more base than they adsorbed, but this was attributed not to basic exchange, but to sohition of excess of the base. 728 - Relation of Carbon bisulphide to Soil Organisms and Plant Growth. — i red e. b. (Agricultural Bacteriologist, Agricultural Experiment Station of the I'niversity of Wiscon- sin), in /oM;-;ta/ 0/ .•^tf;'^■cM/^^^/'fl/ iJt'.stvn'f/;, Vol. VI, Xo. I, pp. 1-19, 2 plates. Washington, D. C, April 3, iyi6. In previous publications by this and other scientists, data were present- ed to show the beneficial action of bisulphide of carbon on the soil flora. As this action varies, fresh experiments were xmdeitaken in order to ascertain the factors in these variations. There were studied : 1) the effect of differ- ent doses of carbon bisulphide ; 2) the effect of carbon bisulphide on dilTer- ent plants ; 3) the effect of carbon bisulphide on dift'erent soils. Some further experiments were carried out for the purpose of simultaneoush studying the effect of carbon bisulphide on higher and lower plant forms. The fresh soil used in these experiments was sieved and potted in 2-gallon jars and the moisture maintained at half saturation. 2 per cent, of com- mercial carbon bisulphide was poured into small holes in the soil, which were SOIL PHYSICS, CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOII. Sar la distribution des bacteries fixatrices d'azote dans les sols russes (On the Distribution of Nitrogen- fixing Bacteria in Russian soils) in Archives des Sciences bio- loiiques publiees par V Institiit imperial de medecine experimentale a Petrograd (French Edi- tion), Vol. X\nil, No. 5, pp. 459-482, 3 plates. Petrograd, 1915. — II. Ojmelianskij V. I,., Fixation de I'azote atniospherique au moj^eu des cultures mixtes (Fixation of Atmosphe- ric Nitrogen by Mixed Cultures), Ibid., Vol. X\ail, No. 4, pp. 338-377, i fflate. Petro- grad, 1915. — III. Ojieli.\nskij V. 1,., Sur les rapports entre la fixation de I'azote et la consominatiou de matieres organiques non azotees par les bacteries fixatrices d'azote. (On the Relations between Fixation of Nitrogen and the Consumption of Non-nitrogenous Organic Substances by Nitrogen-fixing Bacteria). Ibid., Vol. XVIII, No. 4, pp. 327-337, 2 fig. Petrograd, 1915. — IV. Omelianskij V. I,., Sur la physiologic et la biologic des bacteries fixatrices d'azote (The Physiology and lyife Historj' of Nitrogen-fixing Bacteria), Ibid., Vol. XIX, No. 2, pp. 162-208, I plate. Petrograd, 1915. I. Distribution of Nitrogen- fixing Bacteria in Russian Soils. M. Ome- lianskij and Mlle Solunskov start out from the principle that the universal occurrence of a given micro-organism with clearly defined chemical func- tions is one of the most conclusive arguments as to the importance of such micro-organism. The\^ give the results of their enquiries caried out in the General Microbiology Section of the Imperial Institute of Experimental Medicine in Petrograd, on the occurrence of Clostridium Pasteurianum, an anaerobic nitrogen-fixing bacterium, and Azotohacter chroococcum, an aero- bic nitrogen-fixing bacterium, in the soil of the Russian Empire. The investigations were made on soils taken frcm dift'erent depths in 12 locali- ties of European and Asiatic Russia. Besides these, the presence of Clo- stridium Pasteurianum only was studied in 14 samples from other localities of the Empire. The results were as follows : (i) Azotohacter and Clostridium Pasteurianum occur very widely in soils of different characters and in the most divergent regions of the Empire. In some few cases only the nitrogen-fixing agent was isolated, for instance Azotohacter in the sands of the Kirghese steppes and in the peat soils in the north of European Russia (province of Archangel). (2) The races of Azotohacter and Clostridium Pasteurianum isolated in the enquiries are clearly morphologically distinct, especially those of Clo- stridium Pasteurianum. (3) In these experiments, the two bacteria .studied exhibited a dif- ferent fixing power, weaker in Azotohacter th.2in\nClostridiuinPasteuriamtm, 942 SOIL PHYSICS, CHKMISTRY AND MlCRO]'.I()I.OOV but the figures were very close (i to 3 nigms. of nitrogen per gram of sugar decomposed). II. Fixation of Atmospheric Nitrogen by Mixed Cultures. — The work of different investigators has demonstrated that in mixed cultures nitro- gen-fixing is more considerable than in the case of pure cultures. On the basis of this fact and assuming that mixed cultures approximate more closelj^tothe natural life conditions of nitrogen-fixing bacteria, M. Omelian- SKij studied the fixation of nitrogen in cultures of a large number of races of Azotohacter and Clostridium Pasteurianum isolated from different Rus- sian soils, associating with them many other micro-organisms usually ac- companying them in the soil. From his man)^ experiments he concludes that : (i) The study of the biochemical reactions by means of which the bacteria in mixed cultures fix atmospheric nitrogen is interesting in several respects, as it brings out clearly the various aspects of the natural process occurring under conditions of combined action of the different organisms. (2) The organisms acting in combination with the nitre gen-fixing bacteria in upper soil strata are ver}- numerous and they pla}' an extremely important part in the life of the soil. (3) The synergetic activity of nitrogen-fixing and accompanying microbes is, both in laboratory experiments and under natural conditions (cultivable stratum of the soil), of a dift"erent character according to the properties of the species taking part in the process and their environment. In other cases the function of the satellite organism seems to consist in fix- ing the oxygen of the air and in creating the anaerobic environment (for Clostridium Pasteurianum). The species added to the cultures of nitrogen- fixing microbes sometimes supph' the compounds of carbon needed for the process of fixing nitrogen as energetic substance. In the case of the combi- nation : Azotohacter + Clostriditim Pasteurianum, the function of the former is not confined to fixing the oxygen of the air only, and consequently to creating an anaerobic envoronment for the Clostridium, but this combina- tion is also useful inasmuch as it destroys the injurious products of disas- similation created by the second (chiefly butyric acid) and maintains the action of the environment {Azotohacter is alkaligenic and the Clostridium acidogenic) . (4) The satellite species may also unfavourably affect the nitrogen- fixing microbe, either through products of assimilation or by consumption of the carbon compounds needed by this microbe for nitrogen-fixing. The energetic fixation of oxygen by the satellite aerobic species creates condi- tions favourable to the development of Clostridium Pasteurianum, but at the same time hinders the growi:h of the Azotohacter, which is necessarily aerobic. (5) The form endowed with the maximum vitalit}'^ and at the same time the most common form in which combination of the nitrogen-fixing organisms takes place in the upper soil strata is that of symbiosis between the aerobic and anaerobic nitrogen fixers, principally between Azotohacter and Clostridium Pasteurianum. In spite of the opposite properties of the soil. PHYSICS, CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOLOGY 943 two species, their synergetic activity in the upper strata of the soil results in a harmonious mutual development producing the maxinmm econoni}' in consumption of energetic substances. III. Relations between the Fixation of Nitrogen and the Consumption of Non-nitrogenotis Organic Substances by the Nitrogen-fixing Bacteria. — For these investigations, M. Omelianskij used an artificial mixture of Azoto- bacter chroococcum, an aerobic fixer, isolated from the soil of the Institute, and Clostridium Pasteurianum, an anaerobic fixer, isolated from the soils of a kitchen garden in the province of Volhynia, The use of this mixed cultivation was for the same object as in the work last mentioned, a closer approximation to the actual conditions under which the simultaneous activit}' of the nitrogen-fixing microbes takes place in the soil. The nutritive medium of this culture was composed as follows per 100 cc. : 80 cc. of drinking water, 20 cc. of linseed extract 5 % strength, 2 grams of dextrose, o.i gram of potassium phosphate, 0.05 g magnesium sulphate, 0.5 gram calcium carbonate. Dextrose was chosen as a non- nitrogenous substance because it is suitable as a food both for Azotobacter and Clostridium. On the 6th April 191 1, this food mixture was poured into 27 Vinograd- ski] flasks at the rate of 100 cubic centimetres to each ; 3 flasks were then left as controls in order to ascertain the quantity of nitrogen and sugar, and 24 were sown with the mixture of the two bacteria. During these experi- ments, which lasted 6 weeks, the flasks were maintained at a temperature of 210-220 C. Every 5 days, 3 flasks were taken, in order to determine sugar in one by the Bertrand method, and nitrogen in the two others b}" the Kjeldahl method. The principal results of the chemical analyses are grouped in the append- ed diagram, which brings out clearly the most interesting facts ascertain- ed by the researches, namely, the existence of a close relation between the process of assimilation and that of dissassimilation in the cell, which leads to its organic growth. In this diagram, the ordinates exhibit the quantity of nitrogen fixed in milligrams and that of sugar decomposed in grams. The abscissae indicate the duration of the experiments in days. On closer examination of the results obtained, it may be said that the process of fixation of nitrogen ran its course uninterrupted!}^ until the avail- able energetic sub.stance was consumed. The quantity of nitrogen fixed is relatively small (i-735 mgrms of nitrogen per gram of sugar decomposed), which must be put down to the low degree of activity of the bacterial strains employed in the experiments. The curves of nitrogen fixed and sugar decomposed are generall}' parallel. They show a continuous increase throughout the experiment, the maximum rise taking place in the period between the 5tli and 15th day. A comparison between the productivity of the work of the bacteria at different periods {of 5 days each) of their life presents some interest. Com- pleting the data of the diagram, it is found that the process of nitrogen fixation is at its best in the first period. The absolute quantity (0.24 mg) of the nitrogen fixed during the first 5 days is insignificant, but relatively 944 SOIL PHYSICS, CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOLOGY C'ltyvcs showing the Fixation of Nitrogen and Decomposition of Sugar in mix- ed cultures of Azotohacter chroococcum, and Clostridium Pasteurianum. \3 1 1 1 — 1 y ^^ 1 i > r- ' / / 1 i_i 3.0 1 1 1 / ■^i 1 i 1 1 / ^ I \— I y i /■ <\ y 15 / r' Z' / y /' H ^ ^ — 1 li ^ / i ;' K^ / .. / ■ / -■' - ..)-, ..r- 1.5 / ,, r- , / ,j ' /' f .' ' / / ' -' 1 ,- ' 1 / 1 A k / / 35 7 ,' / / ,' 1^ A - 1 y [ ., ^ k.-l- -> K ... ^ _ ^_ _ ^ _i _ i:r " 15 " 10 f5 30 Gradual increase of the nitrogen fixed Increase of the sugar decomposed. 35 ^0 to the quantity of sugar consumed, it represents the greatest degree of efficiency. The efficiency of the bacteria dechnes rapidly during the three following periods, after which, during the final period, it remains at nearlj^ the same level. It may be said therefore that during the first periods of growth of the bacteria in question in the non- nitrogenous medium, that is to say, when the cells of the nitrogen fixers multiply energetically, their work is most efficient. The im]:)ression of the low efficiency of the work of these + N microbes gained from examining the ratio — - at the close of the experi- ment must be due tc the depressing influence resulting from the process being in its last stages. TV .Physiology and Biology of Nitrogen- fixing Bacteria. — M. Omelianskij has endeavoured to make a digest of the large amount of information contain- ed in the literature, not systematised hitherto, in relation to the physiology and biology of Azotohacter chroococcum, supplementing them by his own researches. He deals with the following questions : methods of accumula- SOIL, PHYSICS, CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOLOGY 945 tion of Azotohader in cultures (selected cultures) ; methods emplo\'ed to isolate it ; its growth in different solid and liquid nutritive media ; influence of temperature, aeration, etc. He devotes his chief attention to the problem of the fixation of free atmospheric nitrogen, and in particular the conditions ensuring the highest efficiency of the species under study, with reference not only to the absolute quantity of nitrogen fixed, but also to the quantity of non-nitrogenous substances oxydised. 732 - Method for the Estimation of Hygroscopic Moisture in Soils. — haigh w. d. (Sd Proc. R03-. Dublin Soc, XIV, 52')-534, i<)if,). Journal oj the Societv of Chemical Industry, Vol. XXXV, No. ), p. 266, Ivomlon, Feb. 29, 1916. The ordinary method of determining the hygroscopic moisture [i. c, the water left after air-drying) in a soil by heating it at about 100° C. for 12-24 hours, gives high results owing to the loss of volatile matter other than water. The method now proposed, which gives lower but strictly consistent results, consist.5 in shaking the soil with powdered calcium carbide and mea- suring the acetylene evolved in a nitrometer. The mixing vessel is a thick glass tube shaped like a Kjeldahl flask but with a bent neck; a small test tube fits into the neck but cannot pass the bend. The carbide (about 3 times the weight of soil) is first placed in the bulb : the small tube with the soil is inserted in the upper, bent portion which is kept horizontal ; and then the flexible joint is connected to the nitrometer. The tube is tilted to empty the soil on to the carbide, and the mixture is shaken; the acetylene comes off rapidly and can be measured within a few minutes. A blank experiment should be performed with ignited sar.d and a known weight of water. As found by other workers, the volume of acetylene liberated from 0.018 grms. of water measured 10.5 cc. instead of the theoretical 11.2 cc. The combined water contained in the hydrated sihcates of a soil is practicalh* unaffect- ed by the carbide. 733 - The Reaction of Soil and Measurements of Hydrogen-Ion Concentration. — GiLLESPrE L, J. C. (J. Washington Acad. Sc, VI, 7-16, 1916). Journal of the Society 0' Chemical Industry, Vol. XXXV, No. 4, p. 266. London, Feb. 29, 1916 The reaction of a soil should be studied from the standpoints of quantity of acid substance, and of intensity of the acidity-. The amount cf Hme. or other neutralising materials required to correct acidity, depends upon the first, but probably the characteristic effects of acidity upon fertiHty are more clearly correlated with the latter, which can only be measured by determining the hydrogen-ion concentration. Twenty-two soils of seven distinct types were investigated from this point of view, both by the electrometric and colorimetric methods. In both of these the soil was air-dried, passed through a coarse sieve, and then mixed with twice its weight of water. The electrolytic vessel, which was shaken conti- nuously throughout the determination, contained a platinum electrode coated with palladium, as a means for filhng the space above the sus- pended soil with pure hydrogen, and at its base a stop-cock to connect the liquid with a saturated solution of potassium chloride. The difference of potential between the platinum and a saturated potassium chloride calomel electrcde was found bv means cf a verv sensitive voltmeter. 946 MANURES AND MANURING In the colorimetric method, the Hquid was first centrifuged, and after the indicator sohition had been added, the coknir produced was measured by comparison with that of a sohition of known hydrogen-ion concentra- tion. The indicators used were methyl red, the sodium salt of phenolsulph- one-phthalein, phenolphthalein, the recently prepared tetrabromophenol- sulphone-phthalein, diprop}^ red, and brcmothymol sulphone-phthalein. Each soil sample was tested with two of these indicators. The results were in close agreement with one another, and with the elect rometric determina- tion. The hydrogen-ion concentration expressed as the hydrogen-ion exponent of Sorensen, v?ried from 4.4 to 8.6, the exponent 7 indicating neutrality. The application of the colorimetric method to soils under field conditions is now being investigated. M.^NTjREs 734 - Relation of Green Manures to the Failure of Certain Seedlings.— frede. b. ."iND (Agricultural Bacteriologist, Agricultural Experiment Station of the University of MAXTJRiis'G Wisconsin), in Journal of Agricultural Science, Vol. V, No. 25, pp. 1161-1176, 2 plates. Washington, D. C, March 20, 191 6. In a previous report it had been shown that if green manures are turn- ed under and cotton planted immediately^ a decrease in germination may result, while if the operation is repeated three weeks later germination is perfectly normal. With a view to studying this phenomenon, fresh experiments in jars and in the field were made with green manures of crimson clover, in the pro- portion of about I per cent, of the soil, and with different kinds of seeds. The effect of some products of decomposition, heat, bacteria and fungi was also studied. The investigations as a whole confirmed the injurious action of green manure on seed germination. It appears to be due to some parasitic fun- gus {Rhizoctonia sp.). During the first period of decomposition of the green manure, many fungi develop, some of them having a destructive action on germs. Oil seeds in particular are very liable to be injured. Starchy seeds on the contrary are highly resistant. Cotton and so^-a seeds are extremely sensitive to green manure. The germination of flax, pea-nuts, hemp, mustard and clover is likewise reduced, though to a less extent, by the presence of decomposing vegetable tissue. The germination of buckwheat, corn, oats and wheat is not affected by green manure. The injurious action of green manure on oil seeds is confined mostly to the first stages of decomposition. The experiments undertaken appeared to show that two weeks after the green manure has been turned in, it no longer has any serious harmful effect on the germination of oil seed. The addition of small quantities of lime appears to increase the injury to germi- nation, the greater or less rapidity of the latter to some extent influencing the amount of such injury. Thus slow germination is marked by a high percentage of diseased seedlings. Appended is a bibliography of 21 works relating to the question. MANURES AND MANURING 947 735 - Hygienic, Scientiflc and Economic Disposal of Human Excreta. — gakrigou f., iu: I. Comptts Rciuius dcs Seavccs dt VAcadimic dcs Scunci<, Vol. 102. No. 17, pp. 649-651. Paris, April 25, 1916. — II. FcuiUc d' Informations dit Mimsterc dc l\-{s,ri culture, XXIst Year, No. 18, pp. lo-ii. Paris, May 2, 1916. Various methods of sewage treatment have been proposed based on distillation of the sewage in the presence of lime, with the object of liberat- ing ammonia, which is afterwards transformed into sulphate. The author has devised a method of sewage treatment dispensing with distillation and almost all the complicated apparatus it involves. The following is a description of it : The solid and liquid matter are treated separately. A) The operations on the liquid matter are based on the double decompo- sition taking place between sulphate of lime and carbonate of ammonia, and resulting in the formation of carbonate of lime and sulphate of ammonia. The urine which has fermented sufficiently for the conversion of the urea into ammonium carbonate is emptied into a vat with water-tight lid. Finely powdered calcium sulphate (gypsum) crude or dehydrated is added, and the mixture is stirred up frequently. The lime is precipitated in the form of insoluble calcium carbonate, while the ammonia passes into the state of soluble ammonium sulphate. The liquid is allowed to settle. The calcium carbonate formed collects at the bottom of the vat, while the ammonium sulphate remains in the liquid which can be racked off. This liquid can be concentrated in iron basins until the sulphate crys- taUises. It can also be absorbed by ash, sawdust, or completely dehydr- ated gypsum, and kept in that state until used. It gives off no disagree- able smell. The sulphate of ammonia thus produced is very low in cost, being ob- tained from an ammonium carbonate derived from the urea in the urine, with the aid of sulphate of lime or gypsum which is very cheap. In addition, the precipitated calcium carbonate, which carries with it mechanically considerable quantities of organic matter from the liqiiid treated, forms a manure of high market value owing to its content of org- anic nitrogen and other fertilising substances. In case the whole of the ammonium carbonate in the urine has not been completely converted into sulphLtte by the calcium sulphate, the remainder can, by the addition of acids, be converted into nitrate or other inodorous ammonia salts, which add still more to the value of the liquid containing the sulphate of ammonia. This mode of treatment of the liquid sewage can, owing to its sim- plicity, be used not only in large cities but also in small towns or ^^llages and even on farms. B) As regards the solid matter, it is separated from the liquid by settling. On reaching the works the sewage is emptied into covered and tightly closed settling basins in which the soHd matter is deposited. The liquid is, after clarification, dehvered into the fermentation basins, where it undergoes the operations described above. The solid matter deposited at the bottom of the settling basins in the g-fS MANURES AXD MANURING form of thick mud is passed through the press filter if necessary and then put into autoclaves and heated to a temperature of 1400 to 1500 C. This temperature is maintained for 15 minutes, after which the steam exhaust of the autoclave is opened, and the steam pas.sing out carries with it the ammonia salts. It passes through cool condensing coils, and is then de- livered into vats containing sulphuric or nitric acid for the production of inodorous ammonium sulphate or nitrate. In the autoclave there remains a perfectl}^ dry, fine powder, ready for putting up in sacks, ver}^ rich in fertilising substances and completeh' sterilised. The condensation coils may, if necessary, be arranged at the bot- tom of the settling basins, so as to utilise the waste heat to increase the fer- mentation of the mud and produce the maximum quantity of ammonium carbonate. The method of operation is thoroughly j^ractical and hygienic. It en- sures the maximum yield and does awa^' with all the disadvantages of the ordinary methods of sewage disposal. Huge distillation appliances, un- healthy and repulsive smells, the expense of sterilising mixtures to be added to the sewage, are all done away with, while there is a saving in supplies of every kind, labour, plant and fuel, together with an increase in the agri- cultural value of the manure produced. 736 - The Solubility of " Fluospar Slag " and Mineral Phosphates in Citric Acid. — I. Robertson O. S. The Influence of Fluospar on the Solubility of Basic Slag in Citric Acid. — Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry, Vol. XXXV, No. 4, pp. 216-217. I,on- tlon, igi6. — II. Ibid. The Solubility of Mineral Phosphates in Citric Acid, Part II (i). — Ibid., pp. 217-220. I. — During the past few years British steel manufacturers, particularly those using the basic open hearth process, have been introducing flitorspar into the furnace. Fluorspar produces a much more fusible slag and greater quantities of lime can therefore be added without making the slag too thick. Many thousands of tons of this "fluorspar slag" are produced annualh and form a waste product ; one Teeside firm alone produces over 100 000 tons per annum ; certain firms even pay a few pence per ton to have the slag carried out to sea. The peculiarity of basic slag produced b}" the use of fluorspar is that the solubilit}- of the phosphate, according to the citric acid test, varies from 20-50% instead of from 70-90%. Original " fluorspar slags," artificially prepared " fluorspar slags " and Tunisian rock phosphate were subjected to five consecutive half-hour- extractions with 500 cc. of 2 per cent citric acid. The results clearly show that the citric acid test gives no true idea of the solubility of the phos- phate in " fluor-spar slags " and affords no guide to its value to the plant. The use of fluorspar in the manufacture of steel b}^ the open hearth process results in the production of a phosphatic slag with low citric sol- ubility. Nevertheless the slag is completely soluble in citric acid if sufficient (i; Parti, see Z>'. March 1914, Xo. 214. {Ed.). MANURES AXD MANl^RIXO Q49 time is spent on the extraction. The phosphate or phosphates which the slag contains do not appear to be in combination with siUca and thej^ seem to bear a very close resemblance to those contained in mineral phosphates. At the present time there is a very big demand for phosphatic manures, and if temporary difficulties, such as a lack of railway facilities and shortage of bags, could be to some extent mitigated there is no reason why these low citric soluble basic slags should not be placed on the agricultural market at a tempting price (i). II. — The citric solubility of several classes of mineral phosphates has been determined and also the effect, upon the solubility of the phosphate, ot fineness of grinding and calcining. Phosphoric acid dissolved. Citric Solubility of Rock Phosphates. j3 y ii > ■P "55 a. 13 § S " ''O 1-23. fa •°- O. o ffi °' i!2 * BC t- £i °^'0 ,• ,• > .3 o > u > .a S.5> Algerian sing " 100 ' alcined Alg ing '• loo " -32 a 'in a '^ 'u ' Belgian sing " loo ' pas pas pass §• : = > -o 2 a - o be d .2 ist extraction . ind extraction . 3rd extraction . 4th extraction . 5th extraction . Total extract Actual total . 1 P^' i I cent ' 3-93 3.66 3-47 3.28 2.91 !i7.25 jS.go per cent per cent per cent per cent 9.25I 6.581 4.OO; 6.18 8.261 6.32 3.S1 5.83 7-54J 5-55 3-63 546 6.03 4.63 3.23' 5.14 4.22 3.79 3.00J 4.31 35.30 26. 87117.67126. 92 38.2438.2433.27 31.50 per 1 cent I 6.0li 6-77; 6.63i 5-41^ 3.88I 28.78! 3i-5o\ per cent per cent per cent per j per — " ' cent 6-65: 3.33 10.15 6.48 4.361 8.18 5-35J 3-78; 560 4.00J 3.10: 1.93 2.47 2.29' — 25.45 16.86i25.86 27.27 27.27 25.35 cent 5.20 6-55 5-77 4-49 1-95 5-65 578 4-95 2.29 1.99 24-3030-32 25351980 per cent 7.80 6.98 6.20 4-53 3.08 46.52 50-55 * Free lime removed by sugar solution. The results undoubtedly show that mineral phosphates are comple- tely soluble in 2 % citric acid if a sufficient number of extracts are made. In the majority of the rock phosphates examined five extracts removed 90- 100 "^0 of the phosphoric acid present. Even a small amount of free lime or calcium carbonate decreases sub.stantially the solubility of mineral phosphates as judged by the citric acid test. When a large amount of calcium carbonate or free lime is pre- sent, the citric acid test, as commonly practised, is a test for lime and not for phosphates. It is important in this respect to distinguish between free lime and calcium carbonate, and lime actually entering into the composi- (i) See B. Aug. IMI5, Xn. 706 : also B. B. Feb. i'ji6, Xo. i4(). Oct. 1915, Xo. jKio ; li . Jan. 1916, No. 147 'intl [Ed.]. 950 MANURES AXD MANURING tion of the phosphate. The higher the percentage of lime actually entering into the phosphate compound, the higher the citric solubility of the phos- phate. Fineness of grinditig affects the total citric solubility of the mineral phosphates (judged by 5 extracts) to the extent of approximately 10% decrease for each of the gradients : passes " 100 ", refuses "100 ", refuses " 60 " and refuses " 30 " sieve. With one exception calcining produces a marked decrease in the citric solubility of mineral phosphates. The longer the calcining continues the more insoluble does the phosphate become. The results judged as a whole confirm the conclusion of the former investigation (Part I, above quoted), namely, the worthlessness of the citric test as a means of establishing the relative value to the plant of phos- phate manures. Rock phosphates are quite as soluble in a 0.25 per cent, hydrochloric acid solution as basic slag, and there is just as much reason in favour of using a weak solution of a mineral acid for a solvent as there is for using a 2 per cent, citric acid solution. According to the writer it would be absurd to consider basic slag as of no agricultural value because it is insoluble in water, and it is equally absurd to condemn mineral phosphates because they are not so soluble in citric acid as basic slag. There can be little doubt that, as a source of phosphoric acid for the plant, rock or mineral phosphates are just as valuable as basic slag. 737 - Potash in Banana Stalks and Skins. —Ellis R. H. — I. I'otash in the Banana stalk, in Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry, Vol. XXXV, No. 8, pp. 456-457. I/Ondon, April 29, 1916. — II, Note -on the Presence of Potash in Banana Skins. Ibid., No. 9, p. 321, May 5, 1916. I. — When making an examination of the banana stalk with a view to the use of its fibre for paper-making, Mr. Ellis found the juice of the stalk to be markedly alkaline. He therefore made an analysis, and found a large percentage of potash, and practically no soda. Another analysis was made by Mr. Hanley, of the Agricultural Department of Leeds University. The figures of both analyses are reprodt;ced in Table I. Table I. — Composition of Stalk : Ellis Hanley In original stalk : — — Water ■ 91.60 % 92.70 % Dried matter 8.40 7.30 Ash 2.40 1.50 Potash 1. 14 0.90 In dried matter : 1 Ash 29.90 20.50 Potash 13.73 12.35 In the ash : Potash 45 90 59-IO The readings of this Table show that the dried matter of the ^talk contains as much potash as does kainit. MANURES AND MANURING ' 95 1 In the juice of the stalk Mr. Hanley found 0.7 % of potash. From the results obtained by Mr. KlHs, i ton of banana stalks will yield 18S lb. of dried matter containing 13.7 % of potash (K2 O), or 54 lb. of ash containing 47.5 % potash, or 25 lb. of pure potash. Over 4000 stalks are said to come into lyceds every week, having a total weight of 16,000 lb., representing 1340 lb. (about 12 cwt.) of dried matter as rich in potash as kainit. In the discussion which followed delivery of the above paper to the Society, stress was laid on the importance of vegetable refuse from the markets as a source of potash, and it was proposed : i) to set apart the refuse for analysis and treatment ; 2) to analyse the ash obtained in refuse destructors, as a large percentage of it came from vegetable pro- duce and consequently contained a quantit}^ of potash. II. — An analvsis of banana skins gave the results contained in Table II. Table II. — Composition of Skins In orii^inal skin : Water 88.20 % Dried matter 11.80 Ash 1.77 Potash 1.05 in dried matter : Ash I5-0O Potash 9.03 In ash : Potash 57-i6 These results are of some practical importance for the United King dom, which, one year with another, imports 9 million bunches averaging 180 bananas each, the skins of each bunch totalling a weight of 6.8 kg ; thus it receives every year 61 235 tons of skins containing 7226 tons of dried mat- ter with 9 % of potash. Besides this, the 9 million stalks weighing 1.8 kg each on the average, or 16 328 tons aggregate, supply 1372 tons of dried matter with 13.7 % of potash. 738 -Waste of Tobacco Ash. — Burrell B. a., in Chemical News, Vol. 113, No. 2949_ pp. 253-256. lyondon, June 2, 1916. The fact is recalled that the ash of tobacco, in the various forms in which the latter is smoked, represents on the average 30°/o of the burnt leaf and contains 20 % of potash and 5 to 6 % of phosphoric acid. If hotel proprietors and restaurant keepers had tobacco ashes methodically collected, they would be rendering a service to the country in connection with the po- tash problem, and at the same time making a profit for themselves. It is found that : A cigar weighing 106.5 grains will give about 32.3 grains of ash, of which 6.5 grains is potash ; g5- MANURES AND MANURING A cigarette weighing 27 grains will give 8.5 grains of ash, of which 1.75 grains is potash ; A pipe holding 25.5 grains of tobacco will give 8 grains of ash with 1.6 grains of potash. The results of systematic collecting of tobacco ash and unburnt tobacco also show that tobacco ash and unburnt tobacco from : i) the smoke-room of a club, collected for eight days, weighed 9^/4 ounces. 2) the lounge of a large hotel, collected for four days, weighed 13 ounces. 3) a large restaurant, collected for 10 days, weighed 2 lbs. 8 ozs. 4) a music hall,, one tenth part of the auditorium, one performance only, weighed 4 ounces. The tobacco consumed in the United Kingdom during the financial x'-ear 1913-1914 was 98,412,412 lbs.; the cigars imported weighed 1,331,802 lbs. This would give a total consumption of 44,529 tons, which would represent 13,359 "tons of ash. Reckoning the latter quantit}^ as kainit with 12.5 per cent, of potash, it would represent 21,376 tons of kainite worth nearly £ 51,000. In the spring of 1915 it was worth nearly three times as much. 739 - The Question of Sulphate of Ammonia in Russia. — i. k.^linskij b, sulphate of Ammonia and Nitrate of Soda, in Se.nAedtoJib'iecKafi Fasema (The Agricultural Gazette), No. 4 (120), pp. 85-88. Petrograd, 1916. — II. Circiilar of the Department of Agriculture, in Ilndn.ihCKin XoSHUHh (The Agriculture of Podolia), No. 9-10, p. 38. Vinnitza, 1915. — III. Circular of the Agronomic Institute of Moscow, Ibid., No. 11-12, pp. 44-45. Vinnitza, 1915. — IV. Makrinov, J. A., New Method of hastening Nitrifica- tion, in 3e.niediolhi(''CKaH Faseinn. (The Agricultural Gazette), No. 8 (124), pp. 198-201; No. 9 (125), pp. 224-227. Petrograd, 1916. I. — The production of sulphate of ammonia in Southern Russia, where this industry is almost entireh^ concentrated, has during the last few 3-ear3 increased parallel with the development of the coke industry in the basin of the Donetz : In 1911, the production was 491 metric tons In 1912 " " " 4013 "■ " In 1913 " " " 13 808 " " In 1914 " " " 17 176 " " In 1915, this production reached 16 3S0 metric tons, and stocks at the end of the year amounted to 24 570 tons. It is anticipated that the production for this year will be 32 760 tons, so that this year Russia will have at its disposal about 57 330 tons of sulphate of ammonia (24 570 tons in stock and 32 760 tons manufactured in 191 6). Before the present war, almost the whole of the sulphate of ammonia was exported. It high price precluded its use as a fertiliser in Russia. Exporta- tion ha\nng been stopped by the war, the price dropped to 29 francs per quintal (220 lbs). Importation of nitrate of soda being also suspended, Rus- MANURES AXD MANURING 953 sian agriculture will be able to make use of a considerable part oHhe sulph- ate of ammonia. If the prices go down to between 2-I.5 and 19.5 francs per quintal, the utilisation of this manure even for cereal crops is perfect- 1}^ certain, according to the Agronomic Institute of Moscow. M. Kalinskij, in discussing whether Russia can now allow exportation of its sulphate of ammonia or should prohibit it. makes the following cal- culations for 1916 : agriculture requires 27 846 tons ; industry 16 380 tons and 4 914 tons must be kept in stock ; making in all 49 140 tons. The quantity available for export would therefore be about 8 190 tons. The forecasts of consumption of sulphate of ammonia in Russia are based on that of nitrate of soda, which according to private but reliable data, was about 24 570 tons, distributed as follows (before the war): Poland aud I^ithiiania (except the government of Vilna) 30 % 7 370 tons Baltic Provinces (and government ot Vilna) 25% 6 145 " Kiev sugar beet growing region 30 % 7 37o " Rest of Russia 15 % 3 685 " 100 % 24 570 tons II and III. — The problem of the utmost possible utilisation of sulphate of ammonia being of great importance to Russian agriculture, the Depart- ment of Agriculture called the attention of farmers, agricultural associa- tions and the zemstvos to the necessity for active propaganda in favour of this fertiliser. The Agronomic Institute of Moscow took steps in the same direction, and emphasised the necessity for collective purchases of sulphate of ammonia by the zemstvos and ty agricultural associations. The Department of Agriculture has also instructed Prof. Volokitine, Direc- tor of the School of Technical Chemistry at Petrograd, to undertake test experiments on the method of Professor MtixTZ (nitrification of sulphate of ammonia in peat). IV. — M. Makrinov deals with this latter question. After briefly review- ing the most recent results of sewage water purification, on the method of " acti vised " mud, he states that: i), thanks to the action of the " acti- vised" mud and the continuous passage of air, a very rapid conversion of ammoniacal compounds takes place parallel with a rapid decomposition of the complex organic substances ; 2) the action of the " acti vised " sub- stance and continuous passage of air enable the process of nitrification to be carried on in an isolated and very intense form, which may be utilised for the practical purpose of converting the large stocks of sulphate of ammo- nia into saltpetre. 740 - Manuring Tests with the New Nitrogenous Manure " Guanol ", in Germany. — Koch, in Fiihlinis landwirtschaftlichc Zcitun^, 65th Year, No. 3-6, pp. 143-158. Stuttgart, March 1-15, 1916. Manuring tests were carried out to ascertain whether the good results given up to now by " Guanol " (treacle residue mixed with peat dust and sown with Azotohader) (i) are not chiefly due to the bacte- (i) See B. December 1915, No. 1257. (Ed.) 954 AGRICULTURAL BOTANY, CHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS ria contai»ed in the peat dust. In order to test the fertilising power of the peat dust, it was used in the place of " Guanol " in 2 series of experiments, and in a third it was replaced by nitrate of soda with a \aew to comparing the effects of the two forms of nitrogen. A trial was also made with " Gua- nol " sterilised at 100° C. to study the behaviour of the bacteria. The manure employed contained not more than 1.6 grams of betain per 100 gms. of dried matter, so that 88 % of the betain had been converted by the bacteria at the time of manufacture. It was free from superphos- phate, and contained : 48.3 % of dry matter, 3.77 % of nitrogen. The tests were made with buckwheat, vetches, oats, beet, etc., in pots manured with quantities corresponding respectively to 364,607 and 1215 lbs per acre. The tabulated results show that the peat dust added to treacle lees slightly reduces the fertilising power of the manure. The nitrogen in the peat exerts no action, the nitrogen of the lees being alone active. Sterilised " Guanol " gives the same yield as when unsterilised, which proves that the bacteria in " Guanol " have no specific influence on the growth of the plant, at any rate where the soil is rich enough in humus. These experiments will be repeated in soils poor in organic matter. Poss- ibly too the sterilisation was not complete enough to destroy all the bacte- ria of " Guanol '". In the 3 series where a dressing was applied in the proportion of 364, 607 and 1215 lbs of " Guanol " per acre, an increase in yield was obtained proportional to the increased quantity of manure. The nitrogen in the " Guanol " however does not act so well as the nitrogen in nitrate of soda, being present in slightly less assimilable forms. The researches of the writer into the nitrification of " Guanol " show- ed that at the end of 8 weeks 30.04 % of the nitrogen of " Guanol " was converted into nitric acid. The nitrogen of nitrate of soda is more easily conveyed into the subsoil by water than that of " Guanol ". These enqui- ries also proved that the specific bacteria of " Guanol" do not promote am- monification or nitrification to any great extent. Other manuring tests undertaken on grass-lands, grain crops, beets, etc., are not yet completed. AGRICULTURAL BOTANY. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS. 741 - Studies on the Root System of Plants, in Reference to Selectionand Drought Re- sistance. — MODESTOV A. P.: I. Differences in the Dimensions of the Root System in different Tj-pes of Cultivated Plants, in liopHCtiuH ciininwKi )iii)aHf/Hticiiibix7> pa- cmcHiu (Root System of Cultivated Plants), Part I, pp. 11-44 -r - tables -f 3 plates. Moscovf, 191 5. — II. Depth reached by Roots under normal Conditions of Growth. Ibid., pp. 46-80 -f- 14 tables and diagrams. — III. Contribution to the Study of the Root .System of Flax. Ibid., pp. 101-118 -\- i table -|- i diagram. Remarkably little study having been devoted to the underground por- tions of plants as compared with the parts above ground, the writer under- took a series of methodical investigations of the root system of herbaceous plants, cultivated and wild, in the laboratories and experimental Stations of the Agronomic Institute of Moscow, with the assistance of the Depart- ment of Agriculture. The starting point in these enquiries was the fact, AGRICULTURAL BOTAXY, CHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF PLAXTs Q55 established by the researches of Dehe;rain, Mox^voisix" and Kosorotox', that there is a relation between the depth to which plants extend their roots and their resistance to drought. Assuming, therefore, within the lim- itations of a given species, the plants most resistant to drought are those which possess among other things a root system carried to a greater depth, stress is laid on the need for the following : i) Statistical investigations of the depth reached by the roots of all plants, cultivated and wild, of interest to agriculture ; 2) Investigations into the " metric differences " (i. e. in length and weight) of the root system of the different species and varieties of cultivat- ed plants. 3) Investigations into the fixation and the increase b}' selection of the power of deep root growth. Investigations into the Root System of Oats, Wheat, Flax axd Peas. — These were carried out in 1914, in wooden boxes of 2 different sizes : (i) big boxes with 0.162 square metres base area (0.18 X 0.09m.) and 1.77 m. in height, used for plants which were brought to maturity ; (2) Small boxes (0.162 sq. metres base area and o. 88 m. height) for the plants removed in the 1st phase of vegetation. The soil was taken from the upper strata of the fields of the Institute. The roots were washed by a jet of water de- livered by a pump, and afterwards numbered and straightway put into formalin where they remained until the winter, when they were dried and studied. The plants taken out of the formalin were washed with water to re- move any disagreeable smell, afterwards dried on cardboard, and their aerial and underground parts were then measured and weighed separately for each box. The roots for successive soil layers of 25 cm were also measur- ed, in order to determine the amount of roots in each layer. The result- ing data were divided by the number of plants in each box, and this result multiplied by 100, so as to reduce all measurements to one unit, the weight of 100 individuals. The measurements of the length of the aerial and un- derground parts were alone taken in calculating the maximum, but they are sufficient in view of the preliminary nature of the investigations. At the beginning of June there were sown : 10 varieties of oats, 8 of spring wheat, 4 of flax and 3 of peas; for each variety 4 boxes were used, 2 large and 2 small, so as to have 100 tests in all. The seeds were taken exclusively from the pure lines obtained at the selection Station of the Agronomic Institute of Moscow, because the preliminary studies car- ried out with commercial oat seeds had given very divergent results as re- gards downward growth of the root system. In this ccnnection mention may be made of the tests in the open field carried out by the writer in 1915, with pure lines of flax, at the flax selection Station. The depths of the roots for a given line was studied in a considerable number of individuals (lOO) and over an area of some square metres ; it was found that the maximum depth and spread of the roots in the different soil strata was everywhere the same; the maximum depth of the roots ranged from 44 to 53 cm. between one plot and another. In other words, tests have shown that there is a 956 AGRICULTURAT. BOTANY, CHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS s^Tichronal constancy in the downward growth of the i"of)t system in in- dividuals of the same pure line (of flax). The encjuiries of the writer into the length and weight of the root sys- tems of oats, wheat and flax establish a dear and essential difference between the length {and weight) in different forms of oats, spring wheat and flax. Table I summarises the most important results of the investigations in relation to oats. The difference between root-length in the different varieties of oats therefore varies greatly, with a maximum of about I metre (186.0-101.0 = 85 cm). Then, on comparing the root-lengths with the time of ripen- ing, MoDESTOV notes an interesting fact : the longer the roots, the greater the time required for ripening. In other words, the length of the roots is proportional to the length of life of the plant. The author explains this phenomenon by sa^dng that early varieties develop during the summer Table I. — ■ Results of Investigations into the Root System of Oats. Numbers of varieties I,ength ot Roots Total weight of ! underground \ parts of 100 plants I Name of varietj' from which the pure line was selected out Ripening A- 337 I A- 305 I 186 cm 178-5 170 156 1.50 138 137 lOI 45-56 g 70-85 49.40 40.73 53-20 I 97-65 ! 35-54 29.90 Gudan » (Avena diffusa var. brunnca) « Ghigantskij rasviesistij » (A. oncntalis var. flava) « Bieliaiika » {A. diffusa var. mittica) « Khersonskij Rukhlik » (A . oricntalis var. obtusata) « New Market » (A. diffusa var. irispcrma) " Scotch Angus » (A. diffusa var. mutica) •Australian Oat (A. diffusa var. aristata) Neniertchansk Oat (.4. diffusa var. mutica) Late Medium late Medium -V — ^20 c Fairly early Medium Medium laie Early Verv earlv a - 4020 C-4160 A— ^I7C A — 4 1 1 4 c . . ' period when the moisture has not yet passed through the deeper strata of the soil, and the roots, being able to find an adequate quantity of it, need not lengthen out. This property, peculiar to early varieties (short-root system), has been fixed by heredity and asserted itself in the cultivations in boxes, i. e. in an environment different from the natural one. In the varieties which ripen later, things happen differently : the plants develop in the period when the moisture has already traversed the deepest strata, AGRICITLTURAL BOTAXY, CHE.MISTRV AND PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS 957 and they are compelled to push out their roots in order to get at it. In this case again the peculiar property- of the variety (long-root system) has been fixed by heredity and asserted itself in the trial cultivations. In addition to the length of roots, there were also studied : the total weight of the plant, the weight of the overground and underground parte separately, the distribution of the root stock in the different strata of the soil. As regards the weight, it is found that the length of the root system is not proportional to its total weight (see Table I) and that, in the majo- rity' of cases, the roots, when increasing in length, show a relative reduction in weight. With respect to the distribution of the roots in the different layers (25 cm each) it varies greatly (as stated above) according to the variety. On comparing the different varieties, however, it was found that No. 305 I for instance has long roots which are more abundant in the tilled stratum of the soil than those of another kind with long roots, a fact which must unquestionabh' be of very great importance. The studies of the other plants, spring wheat, flax and peas, as regards difference of root lengths in the different varieties, confirmed the results obtained with oats, which will probably also hold good for other cultivated plants. For instance, Triticitm vulgare var. ferntgineum No. Ill has roots 90 cm in lengh, while those of Triticum dicoccttm var. farrum attain 182 cm. The studies of flax were repeated in 1915 in boxes (they were unsuccessful owing to the hail) and in the field. They bore on: (i) the " metric differ- ences " of the root system in the different pure lines of the plant ; (2) the constancy of depth of roots within the limits of the pure line ; (3) the influ- ence of different soils and water (water cultures) on the growth of the root system ; (4) the influence of moisture on the development of the root ; (5) the development of the root at different vegetative periods ; (6) the daily growth of the roots ; (7) the influence of the depth of seed-planting on the development of the roots ; (8) the root system of the principal weeds in flax fields ; (9) the stereometric distribution of the roots in the soil. The most important results are as follows : Flax grown for fibre generally has a weaker and shallower root sj'stem than that grown for seed ; if the root of the second kind reaches a depth of 70 cm, that of the first does not exceed 40-57 cm. Moreover, the roots of the seed flax are more robust, coarser and closer, a fact explained by the southern origin of this plant, which endeavours to adapt its roots to an in- adequate water supply. As regards root development at different periods of vegetation, 3 periods have been distinguished : (i) the initial period, when the flax plantlet has only 10 to 12 leaves; in this period the roots reach down to a depth of 21 cm., maintaining a vertical direction; the distribution of the roots in the different layers of soil is almost uniform ; (2) in the 2nd period, the beginning of anthesis, the roots reach 52 cm, and the uniformity of their distribution in the different layers disappears, the bulk of the roots lying within the limits of 20 cm, representing the depth of the first period ; beyond the second decimetre a considerable reduction in the mass of roots is observed, only the few main roots with httle subdivision being found ; (3) in the 3rd period, the end of anthesis, the roots reach a depth of 65 cm 95^^^ AGRICULTURAL BOTANY, CHEMISTRY AXD PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS and the character of the root system is the same as in the preceding period. The growth of the roots continued after the end of anthesis (when that of the parts above groimd had ceased) as was ascertained from the observa- tions of daily development of the root sji'stem by means of " observation boxes " fitted with a glass wall. In the roots of flax there is a character- istic winding observed in all the periods of life of the plant. The influence of the depth of the seeds on the development of the root system of flax was not found so clear and decisive as in the case of oats, but differences do exist and must be taken into account in the researches. Studies of Root IvEngth under natural Conditions of Develop- ment. — After reviewing the results arrived at by different investigators of the root system, with a view to co-ordinating them, the writer describes his own experiments carried out on a plot of the experimental field of the Agronomic Institute of Moscow. He adopted the method of Deile;rain. cultivation on inclined planes, modifying and completing it. He carried out cultivation : (i) on a natural soil profile by digging a trench' 281.6 cm. wide, and 176 cm deep, with bottom rising gradually towards the surface of the field so that the plants were not on banked-up soil, as at Grignon, but at field level : (2) cultivation on inclined planes, utilising for this purpose the embanking work carried out 40 years ago for water-regulation pur- poses. The length of the roots was measured at 3 different times, nam.ely : i) germination, 2) flowering, 3) fructification. The results are summed up in Table II, which also indicates the differences in the length of the roots in successive periods in order to bring out more clearly the behaviour of the root system of each plant. On analysing the data of Table II, it is seen that, in their first period of life, the plants under investigation had already developed their root sys- tem to such an extent as to penetrate deeper layers than those subject to ordinary tillage. Starting from the idea of aerial vegetative levels, the writer gives the following scheme of underground vegetative levels. The first level, down to 44 cm. depth from the surface, comprises the root system of short-rooted plants, chieflj^ weeds, annual or biennial, the typical representatives of which are, for instance : Capsella Bttrsa-pastoris, Viola tricolor, Thlaspi arvense and Berteroa incana ; among cultivated plants, buckwheat belongs to this group. The second level (between 44 and 88 cm. depth) is occupied by the root ends of short-rooted cultivated plants, for instance : Sinapis, Linum, Vicia saliva, Pisum arvense, etc. The third level (88,139, 174 cm.) comprises the root ends of long-root- ed cultivated plants : Vicia villosa, Panicum miliaceum, Avena saliva and Solanum luberosum, etc. Next there is a fourth level, comprising onlj' the root ends of long-root- ed wild herbaceous plants, as for instance : Vicia Cracca, Polentilla ar gen- tea, Tanacetum vulgare, etc. Finall}^ the deepest level found lies between 261 and 352 cm.; it con- AGRICULTURAL BOTAXY, CHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS 959 Table II. — Length of Roots at different Periods of Vegetation. Name of plant A. — Cultivlii. on natural profile : 1. Avcna sativa 2. Liniim iisitatissimum. . . 3. Vicia sativa ■^ (4. Raphanus Raphanistrum ^ / 5. Chcnopodium album . . B. ~ Cultiv'tn. on embaiiknitnt : 6. Avena sativa 7. Panicum miliaceum .... 8. Zea mays . . 9. Lupinus albus. 10. Vicia Faba . . 11. Vicia sativa 12. Vicia villosa 13. Pisum arvense . . . . 14. Linum usitatissimum . 15. Sinapis alba . . , . 16. Polygonum Fagopyrum. Hdianthus annuus Cannabis sativa Solanum tuberosum .... 20. Raphanus Raphanistrum 21. Cap sella Bursa-pastoris I 22. Viola tricolor .... I 23. Thlaspi arvense . . . 24. Chenopodium album ■ 25. Berteroa incana . . . 26. Agrostemma Githago . 27. Centaurea Cyanus . . ist period: ' 2„d period :' 3rd Period : Ger- Fructi- mination Flowering | ^^^^^ 79.2 cm. 35-2 26.4 13.2 26.4 52.8 39-6 30.8 52.8 35-2 30.8 30.8 48.4 35-2 39-6 26.4 30.8 35.2 61.6 26.4 not y gerniin; 26.4 26.4 ct ! ated ; Differences between the 2nd and the I St period between the 3rd and 2nd period 132.0 cm. 140.8 cm. 52.8 ! 70.4 88.0 88.0 30.8 35.2 30-8 1 35.2 92.4 92.4 j 127.6 I unwashed roots failure left till spring of 1915 unwashed roots 70.4 79.2 74.8 74.8 70.4 48.4 48.4 83.6 105-5 88.0 74.2 70.4 unwashed roots failures 101.2 52.8 26.4 35-2 35-2 44.0 48.4 66.0 66.0 123.2 52-8 39.6 48.4 48.4 44.0 52.8 88.0 105.6 52.8 cm. 17.6 61.6 17.6 4.4 39-6 52.8 35-2 48.1 44.0 26.4 35-2 8.8 22.0 39-6 26.4 39.6 39-6 8.S cm. 17.6 0.0 4.4 4.4 35-2 4-4 30.8 13.2 8.8 30.8 32.0 0.0 13.2 13.2 13.2 0.0 4.4 22.0 39-6 960 AGRICULTURAX BOTAXY, CHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS tains the root ends of perennial herbaceous plants as for instance the species of Rumex. lyucerne and some lupins also belong to this group. On comparing the results of growing some cultivated plants {Avena saliva, Vicia saliva and Liniim usilatissimum) on a natural profile and on banked up earth, and considering that the compactness of the soil in these two cases must be different, the Author is of opinion that, though it cannot be maintained that the compactness of the soil makes no difference to the roots, it is impossible to share the prevailing view according to which roots should penetrate deeper in less compact soils. He does not however wish to draw an a priori conclusion from this fact before making thorough and conclusive investigations. He confines himself to recalling what was said by Hensen as to the importance of the tunnels left by earth-worms for the extension of roots, and he adds that a similar function is also served by the channels formed by the roots of dead plants. That is wh}- living roots can penetrate even compact soils fairly easily. One might, he says, draw a con- clusion which seems a paradox at first sight, namely that deep-rooted perennial weeds, so injurious to the farmer, may at the same time be useful in paving the way for the roots of cultivated plants, which, by penetrating deeper, are sure of success in struggling against drought, and best utilise the nutritive substances of the soil. A special chapter contains a Bibliography of the subject (552 works); it will be completed later. 742 - Changes in the Chemical Composition of Rye Seed through the Action of some Forms of Fusar/um. — pomaskij a. in MKHucmcponeo 3e.\uedio.i/^. Biopo no MuKo.ioiiu ti (Pii}iioaamo.i()!ui y>icH(i?o' h'o.\nimema. Mamepidjbi no Mn- KOJlOziu u 0umoHanio.%oziu Pocciii. Ministry of Agriculture, Office of Mycologj- and Pathology of the Scientific Committee. Matter relating to Mycolog\' and Plant Diseases. Part 4, pp. 77-106. Petrograd, 191 5. The initiative of continuation of the investigations relating to " pianij khlieb " ("intoxicating bread") the intoxication being caused by the products of alteration of the grain by Fusarium) is due to A. A. J atchevskij, Director of the Office of Mycology, who has put forward the hypothesis that not only Fusarium roseum, but all forms of Fusarium similar both from the morphological and physiological point of view, may equally act on the grain, decomposing the protein substances and forming a toxin ana- logous to the supposed nitrogenous glucoside, isolated by O. Gabrilovitch in the pure culture of Fusarium roseum Link on rye. On the basis of this hypothesis the writer, together with A. A. Jatchevskij and N. A. Naumov, carried out a series cf experiments the object of which was : i) to isolate and further study the toxin of intoxicating bread ; 2) to make a chemical analysis of the mycelium of the different forms of Fusarium. The present work is only the first part and contains the results of the qualitative and quantitative analysis of rye grain infested by Fusarium, such analysis being indispensable for further work, as was proved by the pre- liminary experiments on the isolation of the toxin. The material used was : pure cultures of Fusarium prepared in the laboratory, and the original Pe- trusk variety of rye infested with Fusarium roseum Link, coming from the AGRICULTURAL BOTANY, CHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS 961 region of Ussurijsk, in Siberia ; two samples were also taken of the rye in question, infested with F. siibulatum App. and Woll., and originating one from the province of Tula, European Russia, and the other frcm the region of Ussurijsk ; there were also utilised two samples of " Vasa " rye, infected with the pure culture of the above mentioned Fusarium, and finall}-, two uninfected and two sterilised samples of the same rye. From the moment of inoculaticn with Fusarium, the culture w^as in a separate room away from the direct light cf the sun, and kept at a constant temperature of 18-20'^ C. The analyses were made at the end of 10, 20, 30 and 60 days after the beginning of the experiment. Results, i) The vital activity of the two forms of Fusarium on the rye grains is accompanied by a large reduction of dry matter. Thus, in the analysis of the culture of Fusarium roseum made after 10 days, the loss of dry matter is about % of the total quantity : when the experiment is further prolonged, the loss of dry matter increases, amounting to ^/^ of the total on the 60th day. Fusarium subulahim in a 30 days culture ex- hibits an activity lower than that of the first Fusarium, but the difference afterwards disappears. 2) The dry substance lost is chiefly starch and albumin. 3) The loss of starch in one month is 61 to 80 %, and in two months 80 to 89 % of the initial quantity. 4) The vital activity of Fusarium is accompanied by the decom- position of albumin with loss of nitrogen. Tliis loss is not so large as in the case of starch, being about 5 % in the culture of F. roseum iox the first ten days. It is still less, (2.7 %) in a culture of F. suhulatum one month old. At the 60th day, however, the losses of nitrogen for both forms of Fusarium increase, with an average of 12 to 16 % common to both. 5) Both forms of Fusarium act equally on the rye, reducing the starch and decomposing the albumin, with production of ammonia. 6) The products of splitting up of albumin, asfcund from the analy- ses made, are the following : albumoses, peptones, amino-acids, organic bases, ammonia and a toxin (presumed to be a nitrogenous glucoside). The process of decomposition of albumin was most energetic in the cultures of F. roseum and a little less sc in those of F. subulalum. The numerical data in relation to the quantit}^ of decomposition products formed allow of the following description of the h^^droh'sis cf albumin produced by Fusarium : during the first month of the experiment there are cliiefl}^ formed amino- acids, organic bases, peptones, nitrogenous glucosides, and a small quantity of ammonia, while in the second month the hydrolysis grows more en- ergetic with formation of a considerable quantity of ammonia. The prac- tical bearing of these observations is that, for the purpose of isolating and studying the poisonous principles cf '' intoxicating bread ", the amino- acids and organic bases, a 3 to 4 weeks old culture of Fusarium may be used witli absolute certainty of success. 7) The pentosans disappear fairly quickly, chiefl} during the first 30 days ; during the subsequent 30 days, the loss only increases 6 to 7 "„ ; the total loss being 75 % of the initial quantity. 962 AGRICULTURAL BOTAXY, CHKJnSTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS 8) As regards cellulose, during the first 30 days some increase in its ciuantity is observable, due to eneigetic synthesis of chitin, which masks the loss of the crude cellulose. In the second month this synthesis slows down, and the deccmpobition of cellulose then becomes evident. 9) With respect to fats, the results are that, in the course of the first 30 days, their splitting up is masked by the synthesis due to Fusarium ; in the second month, the breaking up process predominates, and a final loss of 21 to 51 % results. Under the influence of Fusaritmi, the iodine index of the fatty substance diminishes, while the acidity index increases, which means that in the splitting up of fats by Fusarium two processes occur concurrentl)^ ; saponification of the glycerides, and oxidation of the unsaturated acids. 10) The percentage of acidity in the watery solution does not ir- crease. 11) The quantity of mono-saccharides in the cultures of Fusarium is small and does not grow. 12) In a thirty days culture, no disaccharides were found which could be inverted with a i % solution of hydrochloric acid ; after 60 days, they are present in a minute C|uantity (up to 0.25 '^-y). 13) In view of the wide occurrence of "intoxicating bread" in the northern and central Governments of Russia, produced not only by Fusa- rium roscum, but by other forms of Fusarium also, the writer urges that the utmost attention should be given to the phenomenon in question. 743 - Change in the Specific Gravity and in the Starch and Dry Matter Content of Potatoes during Storage. — Szell L, in A'/stV/t/Hi^y/ Kozlemenyek (Bulletin of Hun- garian Agronomic Stations), Vol. XVIII, Part 5-6, pp. 1020-1028. Budapest, 1913. In October 1913, two varieties of potato : " Richter-Imperator " and " Up to date " from the 1913 crop were stored, partly in. heaps on the field and partly in cellars. In the cellar- stored potatoes the specific gravity and the content of starch and dry substance were determined every fort- night ; the same figures for the other potatoes were determined before stacking up and after storage. The results brought out thf following facts : The specific gravity and the contents of starch and dry substance (deduced from the specific gravity) increased generally in both varieties during cellar storage, but decreased in the field-stored potatoes. It fal- lows that it is more economic to store potatoes in well-ventilated cellars than in heaps. The increase in specific gra\dty of these two varieties of potatoes stored in cellars did not take place regularly, except before the tubers germinated. This must be attributed on the one hand to the different factors acting on the stored potatoes, such as healthy condition, respiration, germinating stage of the tuber, dampness of cellars, temperature, etc., and on the other hand to the fact that the results of the different m.ethods of determin- ing the specific gravity are influenced by the following factors : size, shape, maturity, hollows in the tubers, structure of skin, depth of eyes, adhesion of the water to the surface of the tubers, etc. AGRICULTURAL BOTAXY, CHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS 963 Determinations of specific gravity repeatedly carried out on speci- mens of the same class (cellar-stored) proved that the divergencies between the maximum and minimum values were greater in " Imperator " than in " Up to date ". In the former the minimum content of starch was 13.9 % and the maximum 16.6 "„. while in the latter the minimum content was 12.3 % and the maximum 13.9 %. Therefore the range was 2.7 % in. " Im- perator " and 1.6 % in " Up to date ". The difference in the range of values in these two varieties is not merely accidental, but appears to be related to the fact that in " Imperator ", especial!}' in large tubers, big hollows occur more frequently, and this variety is more liable to rot than the other. This observation if practically applied to other varieties of potatoes might have useful results. The variations in the specific gravity of potatoes checked by accurate analyses again confirm the fact that the usual rapid method of determina- tion of starch and dry substance based on an estimation of specific gravity of potatoes furnishes only approximate and unreliable results. 744 - Rapid action of Saline Solutions on Living Plants: Reversible Displacement of a part of the Basic Substances contained in the plant. — devaux henry, in Comptes Rendiis dc V Academic dc.<: Sciences, Vol. it.::, No. 15, pp. 561-563. Paris, April 10, 1916. By previous studies the writer ascertained that the cell walls, and in particular the pectose they contain, are able to fix energetically an ap- preciable quantity of all the bases present in the form of salts.- Prolonged washing in distilled water does not remove the metals thus fixed. On the other hand, steeping for a short time in the solution of another metal causes the immediate separation of the metal which distilled water had been unable to remove. These phenomena of mutual displacements are rever- sible. Just as alkaline metals can be displaced b}- all others, in particular calcium, the latter can in turn be expelled by alkaline metals. These results at once suggested the question whether the interchanges ubserved on isolated cell walls also take place in living plants. The question is answered by the following investigations : A 10 to 15 gram lot of some aquatic plant was placed in a suitable vessel and carefully washed with distilled water (distillation carried out in glass in order to avoid the marked traces of copper or lead frequently found in commercial di.stilled water), after which, it was subjected to the following steepings of 30 minutes each : i) in 250 cubic cc. of distilled water ; 2) after washing with distilled water, in 250 cubic cc. of i per 1000 saHne solution ; 3) after careful washing with distilled water, in 250 cc. of distilled water. The liquid was tested with oxalate of ammonia after each mace- ration. Result : no calcium after the first and third maceration ; presence of calcium after the second maceration (in saline solution). It follows from these experiments that a very rapid decalcifying ac- tion of the plant was produced by the alkaline salts present in the solutions employed. This decalcification is a general phenomenon, having been ob- served by the writer in various plants (phanerogams, cryptogams, aquatic roots, terrestrial plant roots, etc.) and with dift'erent salts. The decalcify- ing salt may be an alkali or alkaline earth, but it may also have any acid 964 AGRICUI/rURAI, BOTANY, ClIKMISTRV AND I'lIVSIOLOGY OF PI.ANTS radical. Any one of these salts causes the immediate separation of a littl' calcium, which increases as the action is prolonged, and finally represent-, a considerable proportion of the total weight of calcium in the plant. It is not only calcium which is thus exijelled from living plants by any other metal present in the state of saline solution. For instance, potassium is also separated on treating the plant with a calcium salt. Thus the cycle is complete for all alkaline or alkaline-earth metals. The calcium in plants is expelled by the salts of other metals, but the other metals are expelled by the salts of calcium. It is a perfectly reversible phenomenon, in wliich the action of the most abundant salt preponderates. There is a remarkable similarity between the absorbent properties of the soil for saline solution and those exhibited by living plants. In both cases the fixation relates mainly to the bases, and these bases can expel each other reversibly. This forms the direct demonstration of a contention put forward by the writer in 1904; " the pectose in the walls of root hairs being in close contact with the particles of the soil, the whole together, soil and walls, forms a colloidal system having the same properties of absorp- tion everywhere. The bases are not held and kept in reserve in the soil but also in the cell wall within immediate reach of the protoplasm ". Indeed there is nothing to show that the cell content itself does not take part in the exchanges, and this simple hypothesis shows the importance which may attach to the study of these reversible exchanges in living tissues. 745 - The Relations between the Presence of Magnesium in Leaves and the Function of Assimilation. — Andr6 G., in Comptes Rendus de V Academic des Sciences, Vol. 162, No. 15, pp. 563-566. Paris, April 10, 1914. Several authors have proved that crude chlorophyll, extracted from leaves by alcohol or benzene always furnishes an ash in the composition of which magnesium phosphate predominates ; other more recent work has also shown that magnesium is the only fixed element forming a part of the molecule of chlorophyll ; finally, Mi,i,E Mameli demonstrated that the quantity of pigment forming in the assimilating organs is related to the weight of magnesium supplied to the plant. If magnesium plays so special a part in the molecule of chlorophyll, it might be expected that the weight of this element would be greater in proportion as the process of assimilation reaches greater intensity in the plants from which it is extracted. The writer therefore, at different vege- tative periods, detached a number of leaves from different species of plants, dried and crushed them, afterwards extracting them by heating with ether and afterwards with alcohol. He measured the magnesium and phos- phorus in the product of the extraction. He thus determined the weight of phosphorus (reckoned as H3PO4) and of magnesium (reckoned as MgO) contained per 100 grams of substance dried in vacuo at the differ- ent times : i) in the part of the leaf substance dissolved in the ether and alcohol [organic pho.sphorus and magnesium); 2) in the part not dissolved [residual phosphorus and magnesium). From the table giving these figures, and also the relations between or- ganic phosphorus and residual phosphorus on the one hand and organic PIvANT BREEDING 965 magnesium and residual magnesium on the other, it is found that the absolute weight of organic magnesium increases from April to May in chestnut and lilac leaves. The maximum is reached on the 4th May in the former case, and on the 3rd in the latter. Beyond those dates this weight decreases almost regularly. With regard to the leaves of the chestnut tree the maximum weight of magnesium is reached on the 26th April. Taking on the other hand the ratio between the weights of organic and those of residual magnesium, this ratio is found to reach its maximum on the 26th ^lay in the leaves of the horse-chestnut, on the 3rd May in those of the lilac, and not until the 14th June in those of the common chestnut. As- suming that the time when this ratio reaches its maximum corresponds, at any rate in the year under consideration, to the maximum activity of a.ssimilation, it must be concluded that this process is most active during I he whole of May in the horse-chestnut, at the beginning of May in the li- lac, and between the end of May and the middle of June in the ordinary chestnut. On the other hand, on comparing the and residual phosphonis organic magnesium .■ r . 4. -u j. .1.1 • r -1 —- — , T— a satisfactory agreement between the maxima of these residual magnesium -^ '^ two ratios is found in the horse-chestnut leaves. Although this agreement is less marked in the other two species of leaves studied, it is reasonable to assume that the maximum of vegetative activity is at the same time manifested by the elaboration of carbohydrates and the concurrent pro- duction of the organo-phosphoric compounds the existence of which is unquestionably bound up with the chlorophyll synthesis. These experiments should be resumed subsequently on other plant species. 746 - Comparative Tests of 4 Varieties of Barley at Torestorp, Sweden. — hjalmar von plant Feilitzen, in Svenska Mosskultur/dn-ni7i:^s Tuiskriii XXXth Year ; No. i, pp. 57-60. BREEDING Jonkoping, 191 6. Tests covering a period of 6 years (1009 to 1914) at the Station of Torestorp. Manure : superphosphate, 178 lb per acre (in the last years 267 lb.), potash salts of 37 % strength 178 (267) lb. per acre. The varieties test- ed were always sown at the same time, the time of sowing varying from the 7th to the 15th May in different years. The crops were more or less damag- ed by spring frosts. This was the case in 1909 and 1913. In 1910 the r)-rowed barley, an early variety, was the otdy one to suffer from the low- temperatures. As appears from the Table, the annual fluctuations of yield are very great. The best results were in 1911. In that year the " Svanhals " variety .2;a ve a yield of about 23 cwt. per acre. The same was the case in 1914, in which year the 6-rowed barley furnished a yield of about 23 14 cwt. per acre. The worst years were 1909 and 1913, with yields of 31 cwt. and 24 cwt., owing to the spring frosts which in those regions form the most f re- fluent weather fealure, and the f)ne which does nicest injur}- to the coreaj in. question. As regards the yield (if grain, tlic " IMymage " variety furnishes the 966 ri.AXT BKKEDING Varieties ResnUs of Tcsls. lyoij lyio I ipir I 1912 iyi3 1914 ! Averages Strazi' yields {cwls per acre). Plyraagc I'rimus . Svanhals Sexiadigt Averages 38 V4 42 36 I ,'8 37 "" 41 Vi 42 -II 41 V4 4 1 3/5 45 4/5 423/5 34 47 Vs I (^o^/, 41 j 55 V5 36 j 45 V3 40 1/2 38 1/3 39 363/4 38 1/2 I 413/101 40 Vs I 42 7/10 I 53 Vs 1 38 V2 44 V5 44 Vs 43 384/5 -I- Grain yields {lbs per acre). Plymage i Primus i Svanhals .... Sexradigt. Avcnigcs . Plymage Primus . Svanhals Sexradigt. , Averages Plymage Primus . Svanhals Sexradigt. A\eragLS Plymage I'rimus . Svanhals vSexracligt. .\verages 1 376.4 1 2 126 2440 2392 930 1/2 2 175 1940 1440 2044 2344 I 9c6 1/2 829 1510 I (.79 I 200 2 136 2580 2 302 1/2 990 2 052 1879 I 429 990 2373 2432 I 980 I;', I 583 \'2 2 625 1/2 I 84O 1 411.38 I 825 1/2 2 145 I OS3 2 091 1836 Wei-ght of 1000 grains in grams. 38.8 g 41.6 g 42.7 g 46.0 g! 30-7 g 46.1 g 41 I K 40.4 43-4 42.2 i 51.5 ^ 35-9 50,8 44.0 39-6 42.6 43-8 ' 45-4 34-8 47.2 42.2 30.0 31.2 36.3 : 37-3 25.6 37-0 329 37-2 g 39-7 g 413 g 45-2 gl 31-7 g 45-3 g. 40.0 g Weight per bushel in lbs. 4 1. 00 50 54-51 52.27 3f>-32 52.75 48.90 46.18 51-55 53-07 52.91 40.89 52.27 ■ 49- 4^' -13 4y-<'3 52.75 50.11 38.08 5-1 .03 47.78 4330 4^,49 55-32 53-39 36.24 52.75 47.30 44.02 48.42 53-9 .52.19 40.43 52.95 48.38 Length of period of vegetation {days) 1 1 1 III III 102 109 112 112 112 112 I 1 i 95 95 95 93 109 108 94 109 108 94 99 loS 89 99 '"1 104 107 89 • ii 105 105 102 100 l"3 PLANT BREEDING 967 best crops on the average, while the " Primus " variety is found inferior to all the others tested. On the other hand, as regards straw yield and weight per bushel the varieties " Plymage" and " Primus" are equal, and markedl}' superior to the two others. " Primus " gives the biggest weight per I 000 grains (44.0 grms.), and is followed by " Svanshals ", " Plymage " and " Sexradigt " with 32 grms. only. Finally, the duration of the vegetative period varied from 91 days in 1914 to 112 days in 1910. The 6-rowed barley is harvested on the average, 5 days, and " vSvanhals " 3 days before " Plymage " and " Primus ", which are last, and ripen simultaneousl3^ From the results of these 6 years' tests as a whole, it ma}- be concluded that the two varieties " Plymage " and " Svanhals ' in the region of Torestorp and in all other localities with equal climatic and soil eruditions, should be preferred to the varieties "Sexra- digt " and " Primus ", in spite of the excellent quality of grain marking this latter variety. 747 - Comparative Tests with 8 Races of Oats, at Flahult, Sweden. — hjalmar von Feilitzen in Svenska Mosskulturforeningens Tidskrift. Year XXX, No. i, pp. 65-67. Joukoping, 1 91 6. Comparative cultivation experiments with 8 races of white and black oats conducted in 1915 at Flahult in sandy and peaty soil. The oats were sown on the 29th April. The frosts at the end of May and lack of rain at the time of earing, caused great damage to the sown fields and reduced the crop considerably. Among the wliite races in particular, there was a high percentage of ears which were empty, or poor or inferior in quality of contents. We repro- duce some corresponding data : (Table I, page 968). Owing to the unfavourable weather, both the straw and grain yields were low. The best comparative results were obtained with the two strains of German oats for peat soil, and the worst with Klock II. The two new types of Svalof black oats were, contrary to expectation, inferior to the German oats ; the shortness of the period of observation, however, does not allow of definitive conclusions on this point. We quote the following average results : Number Straw yield Grain yield of years per acre per acre , ., . of test — — Probsteicr 7 38.36 2 068 New (iernian light yellow oats for peat soil 5 38.32 2037 New tiernian golden-yellow oats for peat soil .... 5 38.42 i 800 ISlack Black (icrman oats for peat soil 7 34-70 2488 Klock II 3 _ji.o7 2408 Black Nordlnisk oats 5 37.8- - '/i Among the black races examined at Flahult, the German oats lead, proving superior to the Klock, which is nevertheless remarkable for its abundance of straw. The Nordllnsk always gave unsa.tisfactor>- results and is certainly not able to compete with the other races. With regard to the 968 PLANT BREEDING Table I. white oats, the Probsteier is somewhat superior to the two German types, but the latter nevertheless represent very good varieties particularly adapt- ed to peat soils 748 - Strawberry Breeding in the United States. — Tin- jounud of Hcnd'iy, Voi. vii. No. 4, p. 191. Washington, April 1916. Probably with no single fruit has more been accomplished b}- scienti- fic breeding than with the strawberry. Of the 200 000 acres or thereabouts which are planted to strawberries in the United States, it is probable that 90 % are planted to varieties which have been produced during the last quarter of a century. Strawberries have been grown in the United vStates ever since the coun- try was first settled, but the original strains bore fruit only in the earl)^ summer. One of the greatest advances in the industry was the introduc- tion of the fall-bearing or ever-bearing varieties, the first of which was Pan- American, produced by Samuel Cooper, of Delevan, N. Y., in 1898. This was a sport from the variety Bismarck, which bore only in the early summer. Mr. Cooper produced a number of seedlings by self-fertilization from this sport and then crossed them with each other and back on the parent. In this way a number of other more desirable varieties were obtained. Cross- ing Pan-American with Dunlap (Senator Dunlap), a widespread and fa- mous variety, PIarlow Rockhill, of Conrad, Iowa, produced in 1908 the variety Progressive, which has proved one of the most popular in the northern States. CEREAI.S AND PUI,SE CROPS 969 Dunlap itself which has long been the most widely grown northern va- riety, originated with Rev. J. R. Reasoxer, of Urban, 111. in 1890, but was not introduced to the trade until 1900. It was the result of definite breeding. The variety lOondike, which makes up probably nine-tenths of the area planted in the southern States, was produced as long ago as 1895 b}- Robert Cloud of Louisiana, as a result of a carefully planned cross. The ease with which results are got appears to be the principal reason why plant breeding has been so much more widespread with the straw- berry than with any other fruit. Crosses are easily made, seedlings are easily grown, and they multiply so rapidly by runners that a large stock can be obtained in a very^ short time. 749 - Sowing and Transplanting Rice on the "Dapog" Method, peculiar to some parts cereals of the Philippines. — Apostol Silverio, in The Philippine 'Agricultural Review, vnd pulse Vol. VIII, No. 2, pp. 9S-102. Manila, 1915. crops The practice of growing 2 rice crops per j^ear is of old standing in those parts of the Philippines where sufficient water for irrigation is always avail- able. As soon as the first crop is taken off, the land is prepared for the second. The earliest irrigated rices are used, with the twofold object of cropping before the rain}^ season has fuUy set in, and allowing the necessary time for tillage for the main crop. Direct broadcast sowing (by hand) is the only one used for the second crop wherever it is grown in the Philippines (provinces of Tarlac, Pampagna and Laguna), except in the communes of Calanan and a small part of that of Bay (Laguna), where the special methcd of sowing and transplanting called " dapog " is in use. This methcd allows the plant- lets to be transplanted without breaking them, at a younger age than with ordinary seedlings. Earliness is of prime importance for the dry season crop. It is therefore necessary to transplant young plants, their age having a di- rect influence on the period of ripening of the rice. The crop ripens later in proportion as the age of the transplanted plants is more advanced. A dif- ference of 23 days even has been found in the time of ripening between rice transplanted on the " dapog " method and that transplanted en the ord- inary^ method. For the " dapog " method the seedling plot requires neither special soil nor special tillage. It is tilled with the rest of the rice field. It must, however, He near the water channel, so that the water should have no time to get hot, during the hours of great heat, and scald or otherwise injure the germinating seeds. Sowing on the " dapog " method requires 1.3 to 2.6 gallons of seed more per acre than on the ordinary method. The seed, put into a coarse canvas bag, is immersed in water (preferably slow moving water) for 24 to 36 hours, then spread out in the shade. 36 hours later, or when at least 75 % of the grains show signs of germination, the seed is put down in a seed plot prepared as follows : The seed plol ;irea, after irrigation, drying, ploughing and harrowing, i harrowed again on the day of sowing. When the soil is levelled and the ^ilt settled, the water is nm off, the soil is covered with whole banana 970 CERItAL AND PULSE CROPS leaves, cut along the midrib, and placed sothat the latter forms a borderright round. Care must be taken to fill all vacant spaces with leaves with their midrib excised. It is still better to build up with two or three layers of leaves a bed of a width of about a yard and a length nearly equal to that of the ricefield dyke. On the leaves a layer of 2 to 2 ^cms. of rice husk or finely chopped rice straw is placed, and on it the germinated rice is sown very closely. i6 ^ gallons of seed suffice for sowing 2 beds i6 yds. in length by 3 ft jins. in width each. The afternoon is preferable for sowing, and it is advisable to strew carefully over the seed the mud lying around the seed plot. It is general- ly necessary to protect the plot against excessive heat by placing at a height of II to i() inches above it light shelters made up of banana leaves spread over a bamboo and board framework. During the first few days after sowing the plot is watered several times a day. In the work of the writer the use of ordinary garden watering cans was found very practical, lyater on, when the seedlings are no longer liable to be carried away by the water, they should be irrigated with slow running water until the time of transplanting, because stagnant water might, during a day of great heat, seriously injure the young plants. Care will be taken of course not to sub- merge them, and never to leave them dry. The rccts, being unable to pass through the banana leaves, grow laterally rather than vertically, and in- terlace with each ether, forming a carpet easil}' separated from the sort of matting placed below. At transplanting, the interlaced roots are cut into vStrips of a length such as can be kept spread over the arms and shovilders, or both the young plant roots and the banana-leaf matting are civt into strips. They are rolled up slowly with the banana-leaf outside and unrolled on reach- ing the field. Here the root matting is cut up into fragments of about the size of a small plate, which are distributed over the rice field at regular intervals, as is done with the small bundles of young plants in the ordinary method of transplanting. In carrying out their work the transplanters hold the frag- ment of root matting in their left hand, keeping it spread over the palm by means of the thumb of the same hand. With the first 3 fingers of the right hand, they detach a tuft of several plants and plant it in the mud. The young plants are ready for transplanting 10 to 14 days after sowing. Ex- perience proved to the writer that if the plants are healthy and transplant- ing is skilfully done, 3 or 4 per bundle, at the ordinary distance of 4 or 6 in. square, are sufficient to ensure regular growth and a maximum crop, under ordinary conditions. Generally, however, transplanting is done much more densel3^ The young plants, if transplanted more than ii days after sow- ing, are greatly weakened and many die. If they have grown with excep- tional vigour, they must be topped before transplanting. The seed plot is planted like the rest of the field after taking away or turning in the banana leaves. The rice-field is harrowed and covered with .=ilt fur the last time on the day of transplanting or partly the day Ijefore. By the " dapog " method the yield obtained is higher than by direct sowing. Under labour conditions in the Phili])pines the value of the sur- CEREAL AND PULSE CROPS 971 plus exceeds the increased cost of production due to transplanting. The " dapog " method is thus making its way into localities where it was quite unknown even lately. It is applicable not only to the second crop rice, but also to the regular crop of early irrigated rice. 750 - Early Weeding of Rice Fields. — xovelli x., in (•xomaic - IRo,in Atti dclla Rcalc Acctnicmia dci Lincci, 5th Series, Rcndiconti, Vol. XXV, Part 5, ist Half Year, pp. 369-373. Rome, iyi6. Work carried out at the Institute of Pathology and Clinical Medicine of the Royal University of Bologna. Several writers have shown that a large number of trypanosomes are able to pass through the different mucous membranes, andNATTAX Larrxer has already taken in hand the solution of the problem of trypanosomes pass- ing into milk. The result was affirmative as regards Tr. schizotripanum Cruzy, and almost alwaj^s negative for Tr. equiperdimi. The writer next describes his experiments with the tr3-panosomes Brucei, Evansi, rodesiense and gamhiense. The virus was injected into the veins of bitches which had just littered. It was desired to find : i) whether the young when allowed to suck were infected ; 2) whether the presence of trypanosomes could be detected by di ect examination of milk ; 3) whether the milk when inoculated into the peritoneum was able to infect rats or mice. From the results it is concluded that : i) The passage of the trypanosomes Brucei, rodesiense and gamhiense into milk is possible. 2) The infection with the virus of Brucei and gambiense can be trans- mitted by suckling. 768 - Enquiries and Experiments in connection with the Immunity of Cattle against Epizootic FOOt-and-Mouth Disease. — Terni Camillo, in La CUnica vctcrinaria, XXXIXth year, Xo. <), pj). 237-261. Milan, Maj' 15, 1916. The results obtained in the investigations and tests carried out at the " Stazione sperimentale per le malattie infettive " of Milan, confirm those which had previously been obtained by Messrs. Cosco and Aauzzi (i) and lead to the following conclusions : i) The virus is preserved indefinitely by means of its successive pass- age through animals susceptible to the disease, when blood products (se- ll) See fi. June 1916. X" 661. (Ed.) 990 LIVE STOCK AXD BREEDING rum and red globules) are used in the same way as with the products of local lesions. The best method for preserving its virulence and observing its infective power in those tissues where the disease arises preferentially under natural conditions, is that of inoculating into the tongue infective material or blood taken from the animal during a period of fever excee ding 400 C, or the product of local lesions. The maximum virulence is produced by passing through the epithelium of the digestive apparatus (tongue or paunch). 2) The virus obtained in this way, whether fixed or temporary, represents the maximum intensity of virulence both in infective and spread- ing power, the adult animal falling sick in 24 to 36 hours. It almost al- ways kills young animals, especially when not yet weaned (calves, lambs, kids or sucking pigs), by general infection, the virus being constantly present in the blood. 3) The present experiments wordd appear to show that several kinds of animals are capable of containing in their blood for some time a very virulent virus of foot-and-mouth disease, without specific external symptoms or with merely slight lesions of the mucous membrane of the digestive ap- paratus or the pad of the short pastern. 4) With the blood products kept in a thermostat, or cold, until the virulence is exhausted, it is possible to create a resistance to foot-and-mouth disease in animals, which will allow of making successive inoculations of li\nrg virus, and of obtaining a much higher degree of immunity as compared with animals which have overcome the disease in a serious form (38 months of observations on a group of 20 cattle). 5) Similarly it is found that the serum of the blood of cattle which have passed beyond the febrile stage of the disease is of marked curative and preventive efficacy against even a malignant form of virus. The in- oculation of the blood as such or of serum, under these conditions (containing the maximum of antibodies), is a sure preventive of the death of adult ani- mals, and results in their speedy recover}-. A therapeutic system in the cowshed or cattle-pen is therefore practically possible, if serum be taken from recently cured animals and injected into those most seriously ill. In this connection, the haemovaccination advocated by Perroncito also poss- esses an acceptable pratical basis. 6) In foot-and m^outh disease, 2 forms of immunity are distinguish- ed, one general, which is located in the blood and more particularly in the white globules (pref erentialty eosinophiles) , the red globules and the plasma; the other of a more strictly histogenic character and involving the protec- tive epithelia of the digestive passages. The latter is less lasting than the immunity located in the blood, and is strictly related to the wear and re- generation of the epithelial cells. In cattle, by means of injection into the tongue, it is found that the gradual loss of immunity begins with the epithelium of the tongue, followed by that of the rumen and the small intestine, and the mucous membrane of the hoof pad. Thus, as happens under natural conditions, there may be animals pre- senting serious external symptoms, involving chiefly the epithelium of the LIVE STOCK AND BREEDING 99! tongue, while the virus does not pass into the blood, which still retains a sufficient degree of immunity to prevent general infection, or else it enters the blood for a very short time and in an attenuated form only. These are the cases when the feverish reaction does not take place or only amounts to a few tenths of a degree for a brief period. The chnical forms of foot and-mouth disease (external, internal or malignant) are in direct relation with the fluctuations in the degree of im- munity existing in the local tissues and the blood. When the animal has never had the infection, or has completely lost the internal or local immunity- produced by a previous attack of the disease, the slightest injury to the epi- thelium of the tongue and the rumen (for instance, injuries caused by the heads of rye-grass, in the presence of the virus) suffices to produce a first focus of the disease, which in a few hours causes the infection of the blood, marked by the onset of fever. When on the other hand, as frequently occurs, after an attack of foot-and-mouth disease, some degree of immunity' still continues in the blood, the seat of disease involving one or more points of the epithelium of the entrance to the digestive passages remains localis- ed but the \'irus may, in this first passage, acquire an increase of infective activity for other susceptible animals, 7) Therefore, in the production of immunity against the malignant virus of the disease, i. e. the one with the maximum of infecting and spread- ing power, the writer preferred to combine the products of local lesions with those of the blood in order to utilise the substances elaborated by the virus in the tissues for which it exhibits a preference, and obtain an enhancement of local histogenic immunity in order to secure a lasting and sure prevention of external lesions. The latter, even if slight, may have serious conse- quences, owing to the occurrence of secondary symptoms or the spread of the virus through the bod}'. In the lesions of the epithelium, substances are observed which may be termed granido-stinmlines and granulo-ly sines, inasmuch as they exert, as a specific character, in the first place a positive chemiotaxy for the leu- cocytes with eosinophile granulations, and afterwards a lithic action, which results in an infiltration of the eosinophile granulations into the tissues of the sick animal in direct ratio to the gravity of the infection. The charac- ter of immunity is indicated by the cessation of the process of dissolution of the eosinophile cells. 8) In animals which have died from foot-and-mouth disease at a late period, the virus may also not be present in the blood, but is found localised in various organs, especially in the cardiac muscle, the brahi, the liver and the kidney, less frequently in the spleen or the marrow. When the virus is in the blood it is chiefly found in the venous blood, being in largest amount and virulence in the portal vein. The bulk of the virus is eliminated from the blood through the kidney. This elimination also occurs, though in a lesser degree, through the milk and the saliva. In the majority of cases these only become infectious owing to the products of local lesions. It can even be shown that the 992 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOI.OGY OF LIVESTOCK anatomy and physiology: generalities. action of the saliva tends to attenuate the virus, while, in the urine, its virulence is long maintained unaltered (i), 769 - Osmotic Equilibrium between Blood and Milk in the Cow. — \ ^vn der laan, f. it. in Biochcmisclu- Zcilschritt, \'ol. 73, Xos. 3-6, pp. 313-325. Berlin, April 4, iyi6. The writer's previous experiments (2), in relation to osmotic concen- tration of the blood, milk and bile in the cow, have shown that the value of the three concentrations is the same, even if the osmotic concentration of the blood is artificially modified. These experiments, however, having all been made with healthy animals, the concentration in sick animals still remained to be studied. It has been ascertained that in man certain diseases, chiefly those of the heart and kidneys, produce a great increase of osmotic pressure in the blood, owing to derangements of metabolism. Doctors therefore ascertain the freezing point of the blood of their patient when the}^ wish to find out whether one of the kidneys or both are diseased. The wiiter used this method for studj'ing the osmotic concentration of the blood in 8 cows suffering from : toxemia, constipation, chronic peri- tonitis with acute anteritis, pyelonephritis, loss of blood through perforation of the rectum, tuberculosis (2 cases), fracture of the ileum. With this object he determined the freezing point of the blood, the milk, and in some cases the bile. The investigations showed that the freezing point of the blood and milk are not modified by the disease. In one case onlj^ the osmotic pressure of the blood was increased owing to auto-intoxication, but the osmotic press- ure of the milk had undergone a corresponding increase. The Author men- tions in this connection an experiment made b^'^Pi.iESTERS on a cow suffering from anthrax (splenic fever), which gave a similar result. In spite of the small number of cases observed, it is believed that the diseased condition can only increase and never reduce the depression of the freezing point of the blood of the cow. In most cases the disease will not (i) The question dealt with here is, as it were, the crux of the problem of immunity, not only in respect to foot-and-mouth disease, but also to other infectious diseases \\ith filterable virus located in the blood. Thus, for instance, in cow-pox just as in foot-and-mouth disease, by passage through hN'persensitive animals, a virus of special infective activity to the blood can be produced. In that case cutaneous inoculation of the blood or its components separa- tely produces the characteristic pustules even in man. By using this intensified virus a wide- spread eruption is easily caused in man (4 cases out of 12 inoculated), but the virulence may be reduced if the blood is kept on glass for a given period, in the presence of oxygen. In comparative studies of cow-pox and foot-and-mouth disease, the writer found that the two viruses behave sinrilarly as regards local and general immunit\'. In some cattle which had been inocuUited with positi\-e results more than 7 years since, he observed that the immunity persisted as regards cutaneous inoculation or quite temporary reactions jilone were produced, while when inoculated on the mucous membrane (tongue) characteristic pustules were obtained but then the virus did not pass into the blood. If, on the other hand, young animals are used which have never been infected (preferably meadow-fed, as then less liable to contagion through human vaccination), whatever the channel of entrance, the virus passes into the blood and con- tinues present there during the febrile period . (2) See B. 1915, No. 1314. FEEDS AND FEEDIXG 993 exercise an}- influence on the absolute freezing point of the blood and the milk. For practical milk testing this fact is very important, as the lowering of the freezing point of milk is often justified on the ground that it comes from a diseased cow. The osmotic pressure of the milk, and in some cases of the blood, w^as also studied in several cows with a diseased udder. Most of the animals had streptococcal mastitis, the mastitis being of a tuberculotis nature in 2 cases only. Experiment proved that the milk was of very abnormal composition. The diseased teats regularly gave an abnormal milk quite different from the normal. The lactose had generally disappeared, and the content of ash and chlorine corresponded to that of the blood serum. In spite of all these anomalies, however, the freezing point of the milk was always normal, except in one case where the animal was very ill owing to auto-intoxication. The blood of the cows yielding this milk had a lower freezing point than that of the blood of healthy animals, but it corresponded exactly to that of the milk. These experiments therefore show that the worst forms of mastitis cannot affect the osmotic concentration of the blood and milk in cows. The fact that as the mastitis develops the composition of the milk resembles that of the blood serum more and more, has been explained by the hypothesis that the process of secretion is gradually replaced by one of filtration. It is a point in favour of this view that the freezing point is not modified by the disease, because the filtered product (milk) has the same freezing point as the blood of the same cow. From the fact that mastitis does not modify the equilibriiim between the osmotic concentration of the blood and that of the milk, it is inferred that milk from the diseasesd teats must have the same freezing point as from the health}^ ones. Experiment proved the correctness of this view. By another series of experiments it was demonstrated that in cases of mastitis the depression of the freezing point of milk remains unaltered so long as the disease is not followed by general intoxication increasing the osmotic concentration of the blood. This seems to contradict the results obtained by the other investigators. The writer believes that the depressions observed b}'' several investigators in the milk from a diseased teat was due to detritus, etc, mixed with the milk in question. The cream has the same freezing point as the corresponding skim milk. The depressionof the freezing point, both in milk from healthy and from diseased udders, is never less than 0.53 C. 770 - Grain Screenings and Results of Feeding Experiments in Canada. — Dymond j . r. feeds Archibald Iv S., and Ivldorf 1'. C, in Ddminnni oi Cmuidu, Drpdiiment of Ai^riculture, and feeding 14 PP- ''^ tahk-s. Ottawa, 1915. Cereal growing has rapidly increased during the past few j^ears in the prairie region of Canada. As a result of the system of continuous culti- vation, the crops contain a noteworthy proportion of foreign .seed. In the year ended 31st August 1913, the Inspection Service of the Cereals Commis- sion of the Department of Commerce recorded the presence at the central silos of more than 100 000 tons of screenings of wheat, oats, barley7and lin- 994 FEEDS AXI) FEEDING seed. It is calculated that the costs of carriage of this material from the fields to the silos amounts to 650 000 dollars. It contains empty or broken seeds of wheat, oats, barley and flax, with variable proportions of a large number of weed seeds. The greater part is exported to the United vStates, where it is screened once more for the production of different cattle feeds. Owing to the extreme smallness of the seeds of certain weeds, and the hardness of some others, the}' cannot be crushed by the ordinary grinding machinery. .Special plant is required, which is expensive in cost and oper- ation, for the purpose of thoroughly grinding all impurities. If screened again through a zinc screen with meshes of 1.8 mm so as to separate the very smallest weed seeds, which are called black screenings, crushing can very well be carried out with ordinary grinding machines, if the screening and crushing are carefully done. This gets rid of about 40 °o "f the ordinary' screenings. It must be remembered that feeds manufactured with screenings not properly cleaned may contain thousands of live w^eed seeds per pound . Feeds of this kind should not be given to cattle, as this might promote the spread of weeds to the extent of causing thousands of dollars worth of damage. The feeding experiments carried out with cows in milk, pigs, lambs and chickens, showed that the blank screenings are valueless as a food and are also exf :;nsive owing to the adulteration which the}'' cause. When mixed in considerable proportions with another food they render it distasteful to all livestock. Although by adding molasses to crushed screenings containing their share of black screenings the food is rendered appetising, it is not eco- nomical. In short, the cheapest way of rendering screenings palatable is to remove the black seeds. The screenings, with their black part eliminated, may be given without restriction to horses, cattle, sheep or pigs. It is preferable, however, that they should not form more than 50 to 60 % of the total grain ration. Buck- wheat screenings are particularly suited as food for poultry, but it seems dangerous to give the latter linseed screenings. As the makers of threshing machines all claim that their machines are, or can be, fitted with screens which are able to separate a large portion of the waste in threshing, the Authors are of opinion that, if greater care were taken in separating the grain during threshing, it would not only save the cost of transport of the impurities, but the farmer woiild in this way be pro- vided on the spot with a very useful feed which he couM employ direct on his farm or sell to breeders. It should, however, b^ pointed out that weeds cause enormous losses to farmers every year, so much so that though it is desirable that everything of value as a food, such as screenings, should be turned to account, it would be preferable to burn them rather than use them in a way which might help the growth of weeds. To sum up, fnmi the practical point of view, the black screenings mu-st be separated from the others and burnt, as they only reduce the nutritive value of the other screenings comprising bigger seeds. They also form a danger with regard to the spread of weeds. They have an appreciable fuel CATTLE 995 value : they chiefly represent seeds of Cheiiopodium alhum L. and Cruci- ferae rich in oil, which it might be profitable to burn after mixing with coal. 771 - Spotted Asses. — Jenks Albert Ernest, in The Jounial ni Heredity, Vol. \'II, Xo 4, pp. i63-iri8, 2 figs. Washington, D. C, Ajiril I'ud. W^'ild specimens of domestic breeds, and the wild species most nearly related to domestic animals, are spotted in a typical or specific wa}', but it is rare for these markings to be white. On the other hand, domestic and pet animals show white spots in almost all species. This white spotting, however, has rarely been reported up to the present for the Asiatic elephant [Elc pirns indicus) and the dromedary'' [Camclusdrnmcdarii(.s.) The writernever found it reported of the donkey in the literature of the subject. He there- fore describes some cases of white spots on a grey coat or black on a white coat which he observed in the United vStates (Arizona) and in Italy (Naples and environs). It should be noted that the 3 species rarely spotted white, namely the elephant, the dromedary and the ass, have been much less sub- ject to selective breeding than the majority- of the other domestic species. They exhibit only a small number of breeds. This confirms the idea that hybridisation by selection is an important factor in the formation of white spots in domestic animals. HORSES .'iSSES AND JffULES 772 - The " Miranda " Breed of Cattle (Braganza, Portugal). — Cruz shepperd, in Re- vista de Medicina Veterinaria, 14th Year, Xu. 168, pp. 331-360. Lisbon, February 1916. The special environmental conditions of the place of origin of the Por- tuguese " Mirandes? " breed of cattle, namely, isolation and scarcity of forage, have imparted great purity to it, together with the characteristic of furnishing particularly fine working animals. Together with the ' ' Brava ", " Landaise", " Charolaise " and " Sicilian" breeds, it forms the Iberian stock, originating from Bos pn'migciiius. P'rom it there have been derived b}' progressive adaptation to different environments, the sub-races i) " Braganza" ; 2) " Beira"; 3) " Mirandes estremenho " or " Ratinho serrano " which form almost the whole of the cattle stock of Estremadura ; and 4) " Jarmelo ", a breed specially noticeable for its excellent milk-pro- ducing capacity. By improving the pasturage, it will be easy to make the " Mirandes? " breed excellent for meat and milk production, in addition to its working powers. Cattle of this breed are now being exported in large numbers to vSpain, where they are fattened for slaughter. Their principal character- istics are : straight profile of head, straight medium sized horns, neck short and thick, chest wide, very high and deep, shoulders muscular, back slightly arched, rump higher than the withers, paunch regular, hips projecting, low insertion of tail, limbs long bony, often badly balanced, coat chestnut more or less dark, with a light yellow strip along the line of the back, from the withers to the base of the tail and darker in the bull than in the cow. 996 CATTLE 773 - Feeding Cows with the Subcutaneous Matter of Skins intended for Tanning; Experiments in Germany (i). — Gerlach, iu Deutsche Lamhuuischaftliche I'rcsse, 43rd Year, No. 26, p. 229. Berlin, March 2Q, iyi(). For his feeding experiments the Author used a subcutaneous material (" Leimleder ", ghie leather i. e. leather cuttings containing gelatinous mat- ter), at present sold in Germany under the inappropriate name of " Baden meat meal" and containing, according to the analysis made by him: 14.72 % of water, 55.77 % of crude protein, 12.35 % <^f fat, 10.06 % of mineral matter. The crude protein is a mixture of albuminoids (chiefl}- collagen), pure proteins and amides, being substances soluble in the gastric juices of animals. As test animals there were used 9 milch cows between the 2nd and 3rd month of the lactation period. The^^ were given as basal ration per 1000 kilograms live weight per day; 5 kg. chopped forage, 4 kg. hay, 20 kg. beetroot leaf silage, 15 kg. mangolds, 20 kg. potatoes, 1.5 kg. wheat bran, i kg. of lu- pins with the bitter taste removed. The starch value was 10.3 kg ; the quantity of pure digestible protein was i.i kg. As cows which have just calved must usually receive 1.6 to 1.9 kg of pure digestible protein and a starch value of 9.8 to 11. 2 kg, the basal ration lacked 45 to 73 % of the first element, while the starch value was fairly large. To make up the de- ficiency there was added to the basal ration, for one group 3 kg. of linseed cake and for the other 1.5 kg. of glue leather. The animals at once took to the latter. The experiment, which was begun on the 20th January, was intended to continue until the 28th February. During that time the milk secretion w^as 10 % less in the glue leather group, but the milk was a little richer in fat. The difference between the production of the two groups being small, the experiment was continued until the 23rd March. The group which at first received glue leather was then given linseed oil cake, and vice-versa. During this second period, the cows receiving glue leather gave somewhat more abundant and more fatty milk : this increase in the percentage of fat was also observed in the first period. Assuming that the linseed cake caused the production of kkj parts of milk and 100 parts of fat, the glue leather produced 98 and 102 parts respectively. ^. In conclusion, glue leather is recommended as a good concentrate for cows in milk. 774 - Skim Milk with an Addition of Sweetened Flour for Rearing Sucking Calves. - Edin Harold in Kungl. Landtbruks-Akademiens Handlingar, och Tidskrift. Year I\', Xos. 1-2, pp. 83-120. Stockholm 1916. In Sweden, i 700 000 calves are produced annually of which only 400 000 are reared, the others going to the butcher. The majority are sold shortl)- after birth, when the meat has not yet " set " and the price is always low, not exceeding 19s. 7d. per c^vt. live weight. (i) In connection with the use of this substance in pigleeding. see B. i<)i5, Xo. 1064. [Ed.) CATTI^E 997 During the period 1912-1914, a series of experiments were carried out at Knistad, in order to ascertain whether skim milk with sugared flour add- ed to it can suitabty replace full cream milk, so as to rear the calves with advantage until, in consequence of the improved quality of the meat and increased w^eight, they are better suited for the market. The food mixture is pre-oared as follows : To 22 lb. of oat flour, mixed with wheat, rye or maize flour there is add- ed 3.3 galls, of skim milk and 3.3 galls, of water. The whole is heated and when it begins to boil, the pan is taken oft" the fire and the contents allowed to cool to 600 C, after which very fine powdered sugar is added in the pro- portion of Vio of t^^ ^^^^ (i" t^^s ^^^^ 2.2 lbs.) mixing thoroughly until the mass, which becomes thinner, is uniformly sweetened. Finally, 4.4 galls of skim milk are added. During the experiments results clearl}- positive in character were ob- tained : i) vSkim milk with sugared flour added can take the place partly, and subsequently entirely, of full cream milk, without any disadvantage to the normal gro^^1;h of the calf, the quality of the meat alone becoming slightly inferior. 2) The best results are obtained by mixing the flour with skim milk in the proportion of one lb. to 2 gallons of milk ; greater concentration pro- duces digestive trouble 3) How far it is desirable to prolong this form of artificial feeding is a matter which of course varies from place to place according to the price of meat and the cost of the feed substances used. Other experiments carried out at Biarka-vSaby (Alberga) and at Ged- deholm confirm the results already obtained at Knistad. 775 - Experiments to ascertain whether the Ability to produce Milk-fat is transmitted by the Dam or the Sire. — woodward T. E., in Hoard's Dairyman, Vol. IvI, No. 4, ]>. 146. Fort Atkinson, Wise, February 18, igiG. In carrying out the investigations to solve the above problem, the Ad- vanced Registry of the American Guernsey Cattle Club was utilised. The plan was to take the bulls having Advanced Registry daughters and pick out those daughters which had different Advanced Registry dams. If then a dift'erence was found between the daughters it onust be attribut- able to the dams, since the sire would remain the same in each case. WTien two daughters were foimd by the same bull, the higher and the lower pro- ducer were compared, ^^^len three daughters were found, the highest and lowest were compared and the third discarded ; and w^hen four were found two comparisons were made possible. In every case an even number of daughters w-as used, except w'hen two or more had the same dam, in which event the records of all out of the same dam were averaged and treated as only one animal. A total of 384 daughters having tested dams was found, which allowed of 192 comparisons. In no cases out of 192 (57-3%) the high producing daugh- ters were from dams with the higher records. The average fat production was as follows : ' 998 CATTLE Pounds 192 low producing daughters 435. S8 192 high producing daughters 548.10 Dams of low producing daughters 473.50 Dams of high producing daughters 500.37 The influence of the dam on fat-production is evident. Compiling the data in another way, we have : Pounds 192 low producing dams 428.07 192 high producing dams 546.22 Daughters of low producing dams 482.86 Daughters of high prodvicing dams 500.61 While there is a difference of ii8 pounds of fat between the high and low producing dams, there is a difference of only i8 povtnds between the daughters. This indicates that the sire also has something to do with the inheritance of dairy quality. By dividing the dams into two groups, regardless of the bull to which they were bred, placing in one group all cows producing 500 lbs. or more and in the other all producing under 500 pounds, we have the following : Xumber of danis jaroducing 50(1 poiuids or more 132 N'umber of dams jjroducing less than 300 jjounds 252 Lbs. fat Average of high producing dams 599-05 Average of low producing dams 428.53 Average of daughters of high producing dams 532.87 Average of daughters of low jiroducing dams 470.18 All the methods of comparison strongh^ indicate that fat-producing ability is inherited from the dam as well as from the sire, and that the prac- tice of retaining heifer calves from the best cows for replenishing and buid- ing up the herd is sound. The fact, sometimes observed, that with poorer quality cows and selected bulls high producing daughters have been obtained, must be chiefly- considered as an exception which should not be made the basis in the selection of dairy cows for increased milk prodtiction. 77 to 2 to 2 Ayrshire. Class Name old aiul over Garclaugh May Mischief . . - L/ily of Willowmoor 3 years INIiss Nox 3d V.> years Agnes Wallace of Majde Grove 4 years Elizabeth of Juneau The Abbess of Torr 14 j'cars Ethel of South Farm .... 3 years Henderson's Daily Gem . . . i/i years Jean Armour 3d Fat lbs. lbs. 25,329 894.30 22,396 955.56 15,015 576.94 17.637 821.45 15,122 536.15 14,582 640.72 15,056 589.20 17,974 738.82 14,487 599-91 Brown Swiss. Class Name Mature College Bravura 2nd Five-j'^ear-old Rosalind B Five-year-old Ethel B Four-year-old Merry of Allynhursl Three- year- old Himdr}- Three- j-ear-old Ha B Two-year-old Elsie of I^ake View lbs. * lbs. 19,461 798.16 16,804 727.64 17,343 710.99 14,371 • 578.87 14,087 574-52 15,603 548.92 13,149 486.91 5 ye; 4 1., 4 to 3 1 i, 3 to 2 I2 2 to 2 tf> Guernsey. Class Name irs old and over Mume Cowan to 5 years Dairymaid of Pinehurst. . . 4 Yi years Azucena's Price 2d .... to 4 years Dollj" Dimple 3 ^2 years Johanna Chene to 3 years Ivangwater Hope 2 14 years Cherry of Edgewattr .... 2 '2 years Marshall's I^ady Dudlev . . Fat lbs. lbs. 24,008 1098.18 17,285 910.67 16,204 855.70 1 8,459 906.89 16,187 863.36 15,079 773-59 13,454 732.97 14,814 606.46 Ho! stein- Fries 'a n . Class Name 5 years old and o\er Duchess Skylark ( )rmsby .... 5 years old and over Tilly Alcartra 4 ^2 to 5 years lyUcile Jolie Pontiae 4 ^2 to 5 years Irma Gilt Edge Queen 2d ... 4 to 4^2 years Dais}- Grace De Kol 4 to 4 1., years Queen of the Hengervelds . . . 3 ^2 to 4 years Duchess Hengerveld Komdyke 3 I2 to 4 years Friend Ivcho Elnora 3 to 3 1/2 years Findeme Holingen Fayiie . . . 2 Vz to 3 years K. P. Manor Kate 2 to 2 14 years Findeme Mutual Fayne 2 to 2 14 years Elmside Xudine Segis Johanna . Under 2 yi.ars Wooderest Colantha Pietje . . . Milk Fat lbs. lbs. 27,761.7 1205.00 30,451.4 951-23 23,830.2 938.52 26,745.3 75 8. 88 21,718.3 962-80 23,788.1 702.46 22,897.0 903. 38 23,148.6 732.70 24.612.8 1 1 16.05 22,106.4 818.73 22,150.4 960.51 22.802.3 706.40 20,85c,. 7 639.62 1000 PICS Jersey. Milk i*at Class Name — — — — lbs. lbs. 5 years old and over Soiihit- igih of Hood I'ariii '^7, 557-7 90I-t 5 years old and over Passport 19,6()4.8 t*39-J 4^2 f^o 3 years Olympia's Fern 16,147.8 937. & 4 '•o 4 /2 years I,ass 64lh of Hood Farm 13,44.1.6 817.8 4 to 4 14 years Flying Fox's Maid 14,315.6 785.9 3 ^'2 to 4 years I,ass 66lh of Hood Farm 1 7,793-8 910.6 3 to 3 14 years I^ass 74tli of Hood Farm 13,713.9 747-6 3 to 3 ^2 years Luckj' Farce 14,184.8 70S. 5 2 Vz to 3 years lead's lyady Riolress Irene 12,307.8 660.8 2 to 2 Vi years Pearly's Exile of Si. lyambert 12,345.5 816. i 2 to 2 % years I,ass 66th of Hood Farm 14,513.1 720.5 Under 2 years Iviickj- Farce 14,260 635.8 777 - The Guernsey Breed of Cattle in Italy. — b.-vrtolucci a., in Uindusiria latHera e zno- tecnica, XlVth Year, No. 5, pp. 68-69 No. 8, pp. 117-119 ; 7 fig. Reggie d'Emilia, March ist and April 15, igi6. One cf the first attempts at introduction and acclimatisation of the Guernsey breed in Italy was made by Count Senni at Grottaf errata, province of Rome, on a farm rich in forage and possessing byres containing all up to date improvements. The imported specimens, male and female, as well as the pure products, have retained all the original characteristics, as well as capacity for milk production, the organoleptic characters, and the com- position of the milk and butter. The pure progeny have been selected and crossed with cows of the Lombard, Brown Swiss and Dutch type. It has thus been possible to prove the preponderant character of the Guernsey bull in transmission by inheritance. In all the cases, the milk production, of the females obtained from these crosses was larger and better than that of their dams. 778 - Experiments in Pig Feeding with Potato Peel. — zltntz and vox der heide, in Deutsche landwirtschaftliche Presse, 43rd Year, No. 31, p. 276. Berlin, April 15, igi6. The Authors carried out 2 experiments at the Ph^'siological Institute of the University of Berlin in feeding pigs with potato peel in the form of Berlin kitchen recuse. In the first experiment, this peel, well dried, thencoarseh ground, was administered with a basal ration to 3 pigs. It was found that pigs of a weight of 66 to 88 lbs can easily take i.i lbs. of dried peel per day per head. A second experiment, in which I pig received i.i lbs. of potato peel and 0.22 lbs. of desiccated full cream milk per day, and was put into a respiration chamber, showed that the crude cellulose of the peel is much less diges- tible than that cf the whole potato, which is quite intelligible. This matters little, however, because the content of crude cellulose is small relatively to the other nutritive elements, and the content of non-nitrogenous extract is almost equal to that of whole dried potatoes. The crude protein is difii- citlt to digest, but the figures of digestibility are not much below those found by Keli 12, 1996. The straw made soluble by a solution of caustic soda used in this ex- periment, first manufactured in Germany by Oexislinx and sold under the name of " Zellulosef utter " (cellulose forage), generally contains 65 % of pure ligneous substance, 20 % of dried potato, and 15 % of molasses. The straw meal, finely ground erst 12 s. per cwt. The two forages were compared with sliced potatoes. The test animals were 12 growing pigs divided into .4 equal groups, each fed as follows : I Crushu'd barle\', first :..- lbs. ; afterwards 3.3 lbs. Group I Boiled potatoes 19.8 lbs. / Fish meal, 1.5 lbs. \ Crushed barley, first 2.2 lbs. ; afterwards 4.4. lbs. / Sliced potatoes, 6.6. lbs. \ Crushed barlej% first 2.2 lbs; afterwards 4.4. lbs. / Cellulose forage, 6.6. lbs. \ Crushed barlev, first 2.2. lbs; afterwards 4.4 lbs. '''""f" ^^' I Straw meal, 6.6 lbs. The supplementary forage was properly mixed with basal forage. The experiment proper, which was preceded by a preparatory period, lasted 61 days and took a normal course. During this period it was observed that the pigs of Group IV (receiving straw meal) did not take to their ra- tion willingly. On completion of the experiment, these animals were found to be more poorly constituted. The following was the daily increase of weight per animal in the differ- ent groups : Group I {without supplementarj- forage) 0.86 lb. Group II (with sliced potatoes) i.i " Group III (with cellulose forage) c.yo " Group IV (with straw meal) 0.44 " The Writer concludes that the productive value of cellulose forage is equal to about 50 "o of the value cf sliced potatoes, and that straw meal is valueless as food for pigs. 780 - Value of Lucerne and other Green Forage in Pig Feeding. — mls staxssox in Kun<'l. Landtbruks- Akademiens Standlin Skim luilk 26.3 24.2 » Barley 27.7 25.7 Vetches-Seum 23.8 21.8 Clover-Serum 23.2 28.8 » I^ucerne 25. s 23.7 7S1 - Experiments on the Necessity of adding Gravel to Poultry Food. — BtJzAs cy., in Baromfitenycxztuk (Poultry Keepers), Year XI, Xo. 6, pp. 68- 70 Bu(lai)est, April 1916. In order to ascertain whether there is any advantage in adding small gravel to the food of fattening chickens, as is done by most Hungarian poultrj^ preeders, Mr. A. Zaitschek, Chief Royal Chemist, undertook a series of experiments. Their object was, at the same time, to gain further knowledge about the gizzard of graminiverous birds, and ascertain w^hether the small gravel always found in the gizzard of poultry is an indispensable mechanical factor in digestion. The tests covered 3 groups of 6 chickens, kept from the i..|.th Septem- ber to the 28th November on a diet of maize, partly whole, partly ground. While group II was given carefully screened maize free from all gravel, group I POULTRY 1003 was also given a weighed quantit}' of gravel, in portions renewed as and when the birds consumed the contents of their trough, so that during the entire experiment each chicken of group I swallowed about 600 grams of gravel. The weight of the gravel varied from 0.14 to 0.24 gr. per grain ; the width from 1.2 to 7 mm. and the length from i to 10.5 mm. To get rid of soluble parts the gravel was first scorched in a flame, then, before administration, was boiled in dilute hydrochloric acid, and afterwards in water. The average daily ration given per individual was almost equal in both groups: in group I, each subject consumed 73.4 gr. of maize, and in group II, 72.4 g. In the course of the experiments the chickens were often weighed {the results are indicated in 2 tables). In both groups there were birds whose weight increased during the 2 14 nionths of experiment, and others whose weight diminished. The latter were the majority', so that at the end of the experiment the weight of the birds of the ist group showed a reduction of 314 grams (averaging 52.3 per individual), and that of the 6 birds of group II a reduction of 597 gr. (99.5 gr. average per individual). Allowing for the daily ration of group II, which was i gram less, it may be concluded from the above results that the 2 groups assimilated their food in an equal degree, so that from the point of view of grain utilisation it is quite immaterial whether it is administed with or without gravel. In the average change of live weight there was a very small difference between the 2 groups, and it was concluded that the live weight of the birds fed with maize with or without gravel varied uniformly. At the end of the experiment, the gizzards of the birds of each of the 2 groups were examined, and gravel was found which was carefully clean- ed and then weighed. The gizzards of the birds of group I contained on the average 13 grams of such gravel, while in those of group II there was an average of 6 gr. As however the chickens of group IT received no gravel during the test, it is evident that they kept it in the gizzard for about 2 14 months, which suggests that they use it for grinding the grain swallowed, and that the anatomical construction of the gizzard is .such as to render the expulsion of the gravel difficult. (Re;aumur had already recognised the necessity for the presence of gravel in the gizzard of graminivorous birds). The 2 757 grains of gravel found in group I weighed together 52.7 gr. (0.019 &^- per grain); in group IT, bbj grains weighed together 29.5 gr. (0.44 gr. per grain), which shows that the birds of group II kept bigger grains of gravel. There were also differences in the shape of the gravel ; that of group II was rounder and smoother, which must be attributed to the conti- nuous friction in the gizzard. Finally, the grains of gravel weighing 13 grams found in group I prove that the greater part of the gravel was eva- cuated with the excrement, as the birds of this group had still received 60 grams of gravel on the average, 10 days before being killed. It follows from these observations that gravel may be dispensed with during the short period of fattening of chickens (intensive fattening lasts 15 days at most), because in the gizzard of poultry there is always the necessary quantity of gravel for grinding the grain. It still remains to be as- certained, however, whether digestion takes place perfectly in case of com- 1004 BEp:s — PISCICULTURE plete absence of gravel. To clear up this question it would be necessary to prevent newly hatched chicks from swallowing gravel. The fact that the hen brings gravel to the chicks with the very first food containing grain seems to confirm the opinion that gravel is indispensable for mechanical digestion. BEES 782 - Cold as the Cause of the Death of Bees in a Colony Wintering under Good Conditions (i). — Astor a., in L' Apiculture, Year 60, No. 3-4, pp. 28-31. I'aris, March-April I'lib. , In all hives, even these wintering under good conditions, both from the point of view of population and food supply, ventilation, etc., a num- ber of bees ahv&3^s die during winter confinement. This number varies according to the size of the colony, the number of old bees in the autumn, etc., ranging usually from one hundred to one thousand per hive. The writer has found that cold is the cause of the death of the bees. He picked up every morning the bees which had fallen lifeless on the floor of the hive. These apparentlj^ dead bees, which if left alone would no doubt die shortly, were put in a queen bee cage made of metal gauze, and gently warmed. The majority of them were restored to life by the warming only, regaining their full vigour and liveliness. The computation of the bees falling lifeless ever}^ day and those restor- ed by warming, and dead bees leads to the following conclusion.s : The number of lifeless bees taken from the floor of the hive and the per- centage of dead bees relativeh^ to those lifeless in appearance is larger in proportion as the temj^erature is lower, and vice-versa. At least 80 % of the bees which perish during the winter in a colony wintering under good conditions are killed by cold. piscicuL- 783- A New Skin Disease in Carp in Germany. — plehn m., in Aiis.cmcinc Fischerei- TURE Zcituns;, Year 1915, Xo. 12, pp. 179-180. Munich, 191 5. A description is given of a skin disease, hitherto unknown, which caused great damage in 1915 in fish ponds in Germany. The first symptoms are one or more characteristic dark spots on the skin, which gradually spread and finally reach the size of a 5 shilling piece. The colour sometimes disappears, but mostly a hole forms in the middle of the spot ; it is shallow, being limited to the subcutaneous layer, which then gives it a fine white colour. The white hole is surrounded by a darker zone which graduall}' grows fainter. These are the typical sj^mptoms of the disease. Cases are also observed in which the subcutaneous la} er is attacked; it comes away in pieces which float in the water. Below the subcutaneous part attacked, a hole forms in the flesh, the dark colour of the zone loses its intensity, and finally a characteristic abscess forms. The diseased skin contains enormous quantities of bacteria, and it is be^-ond doubt that one of these bacteria is the pathogenic agent in the disease. It was however impossible to find the presumed pathogenic agent, and the Writer asks all fish breeders and investigators to communicate to him in detail their observations on the disease. (i) .See B. 1915, No. 209. {Ed.) AGRICULTURAL MACHINERY 1005 The disease often causes the death of the fish, but cnh- when the latter is greatly enfeebled. In some cases recovery may take place. The dead fish being entirely invaded with bacteria, it was not possible to ascertain where the}' enter. The study of the disease is being continued. FARM ENGINEERING. 7S4 - Strecker's Liquid-manure Drill. — Strecker, iu Deutsche Landwirtschaftliche Presac, 43rd Year, Xi>. },},, p. z going astride the row this tractor cultivates all vegeta- bles grown in narrow rows such as onions, beets, carrots and by going bet- ween the rows it will cultivate maize, potatoes, peas etc. This tractor can also be used for driving other small machines such as pumps, churns, cream separators, wood-saws and the like. 789 - Experiments on the Fuel used in Farm Portable Engines.— AVif^a de i unis, JHrcction 'generate dc V Au^riculturc, du Commerce ct dc la Cnliiniaatinn, BiiUdin, Year 2-, etc. Denmark United-Kingdom Canada Denmark British India 21 143. Device in straw presses with sliding ram. 1 161. Apparatus for washing grain. Dairying machine and implements. 167 953. Cream separator. 21 106. Improvement of parts of milking machines. Other agricultural machines and implements. 2 225. Improvement in devices for controlling sup])ly of water for irri- gation purposes. 167 539. Straw rope twister. 167632. Hide removing instrument. lOlG HTJILDIXG COXSTRUCTIOX Cuba 2 43,v Imprdvomcjil in sugar mills. 2 458. Improvement in machines for slrii)])in<^ sugareanc leaves. 2 466. Filter-press. Denmark 21 127. Plant thinning machine. 21 128. Device for the cooling of preserve glasses and jars. 21 135. lyink for iron tether. I'-rance )7<) 538. Sprayer utilizing bicycle pumps as source of pressure. United-Kingdom 193- Foster mother for chickens. 787. Machine for preparing Hbres for spinning. 789. Tea rolling machine. , I 255. ]Machine for thinning root crops. I 323. Insect traps. United States i 176 182 ■ — i 178 552 — i 178 903 — i 180 962. Traction engines. I 177 497. Calf weaner. 1 177 783 — I 178 761 — I 178 838 — I 179 066 — I 179 900 — I 180 476 Tractors. I 178 782. Com topper. BUILDING 791 " Inverted Siphons Replace Bridges where Canals Cross Roads.- 'I'lu limiihrr- CONSTRUCTION" iiii', Rfcoyd, Vol. 73, Xo. IS, p. .\y^. New York, April 8, 1916. The extensive system of main irrigation canals and laterals in the Im- perial Valley California has presented in many places the problem of get- ting the highways across the canols without interfering with the function of either. Bridges were built across the larger canals but as the channels are above ground level, heavy gradients were required for the approaches. It was formerly believed that inverted siphons would not be feasible on account of the quantities of silt carried by the irrigation water and which it was feared would fill up an under-ground conduit. Experiment, however, has proved that velocities of 2ft. per second would keep the corrugated pipe siphons clear of silt although 3ft. per second is desirable for carrying the heavier sands. As a result a great many siphons have been installed and this has led to a much more satisfactory road system. A number of these siphons are of corrugated iron pipe with collars and head walls of concrete ; others, where concrete material is lacking have timber head walls. It has been found that Oregon pine inlet and outlet walls last about eight years in the dry soil and this is considered as suitable as more permanent work. The inverted siphon method obviates all difficulties where it is necess- ary to carry two canals across a road and across each other. This is now done by means of two siphons, one beneath the other. 792 - Small Irrigation Canals Lined with Concrete to Prevent Seepage Water Loss. — I{d\v.\kds, C. I'., in t:'.n'^iiu\-rinv Krcord, \'ol. 73, Xos. if' and i;, pp. siil~i -Sio and 539-541. Xew York, .Vpril 15 and 22, 191 6. As a result of lining with concrete about 40 per cent of the canals and laterals of the Okanogan irrigation project in W^ashington, seepage losses have been reduced from 51 to about 13 per cent of the total water received at the head works. The lining has been placed in the sections of DTTILDIN'C; COXSTRUCTION lOI' the canals where seepage losses were greatest, these localities ha\nng first been determined by current meter measurements. The losses in the canal system for ign with 43 miles of canals and lat- erals in operation and only i mile concrete lined was 51. i per cent, an aver- age of 1.2 per cent per mile. The loss for 1915 was 20.4 per cent with 76 miles of canals and laterals in i-^peration, or an average of 0.27 per cent per mile. It is estimated that the further lining for 5 i/^ miles which will be completed before this year's (1016) irrigation season commences will reduce the losses to less than 13 per cent. In the original designs most of the canals were built with i on i I/2 slopes on the upper portions of the project and i on 2 side slopes on the lower or sandier portions. A friction factor of n =0.025 was ^^sed for the unlined canals, while « =0.015 was found to be safe for concrete lining. The canals as already built and in operation were generally too large for lining without back filling. A concrete lining i^ inch thick was decid- ed upon with a backfill of sand and gravel of at least 3 inches on the bot- tom and side slopes. According to the size of the canal- in some places, the backfill re juired was 4 to 8 inches and sometimes as much as 2 feet. The writer describes in detail the methods followed in carrying out the work. Altogether, 134 000 lineal feet of canal were lined and they re luired 7500 cu. yards of concrete. The following table gives some data concerning the work done and its cost per cubic 3 ard and per lineal foot. Section A Section B Section C Section D Section E Width of boltoni, teet .... Total depth >■ .... Perimeter » .... Cti. yds. concrete per ino ft. of canal Cu, j'ds. backfill per 100 ft. of 0.50 1. 10 5-45 2.52 5.00 39-50 9.815 0.248 1-25 2.00 7.93 3-65 7-5 27.40 9.700 0.355 2.00 2.25 II. 10 5-15 12.00 19.40 9.695 0.498 3.00 3.20 15-52 7-15 38.00 14.00 9.877 0.706 4-50 4.60 22.0(> 10.20 28.00 I^in. ft. per cu. yd. of concrete Total cost per cu. yd. concrete and foundation $ T(jtiil cost per liu. ft $ 9. 82 8.065 0.823 Part of the lining has been in use for four seasons and has given good service and shows no signs of wear. No trouble has been experienced on account of expansion or contraction injuring the lining even when the canal is dry during hnlf the time in summer. I0l8 RURAL ECONOMICS RURAIv ECONOMICS. 793 - Increase of Yield of the Soil in the Alpine Regions of Salzburg, Austria. — iiamza Eknst, in Wu-iur LaiuhcirtscliafllicJu' Zcilschrijt, Xo. 32, i>p. 4<-'7-409. Vienna, June 30, 1913. In spite of the long-continued efforts of leading men to replace the out- of-date sytem known as " Egartenwirtschaft " (i) by 3 rational cultivation of the Alpine region, no noteworthy progress has hitherto been recorded in that direction. The " Landeskulturrat " of the Tyrol alone has taken this very important question in hand. The enormous value of intensive forage crop production is obvious if we consider that in Austria about 311 220 acres are cultivated on the " Egart " system, the yield of which might without any great difficulty be doubled, and if we compare the yield of artificial grasslands, which is 80 to 100 or even 240 cwt of hay per acre, with that of the " Egart", whih is 16 to 64 cwt. We may remark that in this comparison no allowance is made for the fact that artificial grass-land produces a quality of forage in- comparably superior to that of the "Egart ", which contains from 60 to 80 % of weeds or poor quality grass. Unless the population are continually instructed and the question is handled and const antl)^ kept under watch by competent authorities, and the necessary information supplied whenever required, that is to say, unless somebod}^ thorouglil}' at home in this ques- tion both theoretically and practically, takes it up systematically, the money granted to the " Subventionswiesen " (subsidised grass-lands) will in most cases be absolutely wasted. Not only those parts of the country where " Egart " is practised are very much behindhand, but also those where cultivation prevails. There are at present still fallow lands, for instance the " Flachgau " of Salzburg, in Upper Austria and in various parts of Lower Austria, where triennial rotation is still carried on. As the small region of Salzburg presents these two very distinct systems of cultivation, it is expedient to mention here tlie conditions of soil utilisation existing on present farms. I. — Region known as the " Egart" Region (Pinzgau, Pongau, Lungau and Tannengau). — The most usual rotation is: grain crops, grain crops, then 4 years " Egart " ; or grain 3 time running, and 3 years" Egart ". There is no reason to do away with this system ; it is sufficient to substi- tute artificial grass-land for natural grassland. On his trial lands, which w-ere tilled and dressed after the usual manner cf the country, the Author nevertheless obtained yields equal or very close to those generally obtained. It is evident moreover that the yields undergo considerable increase if more careful tillage is done and if the preceding crops are better chosen. (i) The " Egartenwirtschaft ", or " Egart " system, as practised in the mountain regions of Austria, part of Bavaria, etc., consists in fallowing for a certain period, laying down to grass for the same period, and cereal growing for a further equal period. (Ed.) RURAIv ECOXOMICS IOI9 There ma}' be taken as an example the results obtained at the vSchool of Agriculture of Oberhalm, Tannengau, and summed up in Table I. Table I. — Results obtained at the School of Agriculture of Oberhalm. A. — Cost of bringing an acre of land under cultivation (excess expenses as compared with " Egart" system) — Cover crop: oats. i s. d. I days ploughing (cost of team 6s. 8d. per day) 6. 8 Y4 day harrowng (at 6s. 8d. per da3') i. 8 Vg day to cover seeds mixture " 10 Ya day to sow oats and seeds mixture i. o 5 Y2 bushels of oats at 2s. 6d. per bushel 14. Jlixture of clover and grasses Yield of hay per acre in owl. {valued at 2s. 6d. per cwt.). cwt. £ s. d. per cent Rotation grass land 85.61 " Egart " control 59-73 Increased j'ield 25.88 Cost of bringing under cultivation! Net profit 10. 14. Oj 140.66 7. 9. o 100.00 3- 5-0 2. 8.3 16. 9 40.66 191 4 cwt. 88.70 37.84 30.86 £ s. d. per cent II. 2. o 7. 4. 6 3. 17. 6 153 100 53 Rotation gi^ass land: " KgarL " control : C. — Composition of: Green oats clover and 18 % weeds and bad ([uality grass, improved grasses. Clover and improved 43 % weeds and bad grass in the hay grasses. 51 % in the aftermath. In the regions where "Egart" is practised, and where grass grows heavily, the trials showed that starting cultivation with still green cereals is by far the most advantageous. The reasons are several : i) This power of strong growth of the grass also influences the ce- reals, which develop powerfully and produce a l?rge quantit}- of culm and leaves, throwing so much shade on the seed that its gro\vth is very much impeded ; 2) These cereals lodge easily, which makes the result of sowing doubtful ; 3) It is impossible by tillage to secure anything like complete elim- ination of the weeds owing to the shallowness of the arable soil. Besides this, when the fields are sown with ripening cereals, one half at least of such seed is lost. »Startiiig cultivation with still green cereals means 1020 RlIRAl. KCOXOMTCS some increase of labour, which is more than made up for ])y the very much superior quaUty of the forage. The estimate of starting expenses given above shows that the increased labour only amounts to 2 days' labour of one person per acre and just over i y^ days of one team, and it only recurs every 6 years ; evidently then this increased labour can hardly cause any difhculty. II. — So-called Ploughing Region (Flachgau). — As an example clearly showing the increase of yield which may reasonably be expected, the results obtained on the farm of the peasant Stadler at VoUern near Oberndorf and summed up in Table II, ma}^ be adduced. TabIvE II. — Results obtained on the Farm of the Peasant Stadler at Vollern near Oberndorf A. — Costs per acre of putting under cultivation {excess of expenses over permanent natural s^rass land) — Cover crop: oats. & s. d. As previously i. 4. 11 Plus mixture of clover and grasses 1-5. Total expenses . 9. II B. — Yield of hay per acre {valued at 2 s. 6 d. per cwt). 1913 1914 cwt. £ s. d. % cwt. $ s. d. % Artificial permanent grass land . Natural i^ermanent grass land . 47 27 5. 17. 6 3. 7- 6 171 100 71 42 8.17. 6 5- 5- 168 100 Increa.sed yield 20 2. 10. 71 29 3. 12. 6 68 Starting cultivation C. — Stavlinii cultivatiuii with ripening oats. The expenses also amount to £2. 9. 1 1. D. — Yield per acie in cwt. 191 3 cwt. £ s. d. \ Grain 12 (at 7. s. 7 d.) = 4. 11. o j Straw 21 (at 2. s. i d.) Total . . Kxpenses to be deducted . . 2. 3. '» 6. 14. ij 2. 'J. II Hay. cwt. 5; 1914 t^'s^d. ici. 17. 6 Net profit 4. I. I'j (1) Control pint, hay . . 31.25 (2 s. b d. per ctvt) ^ 3. 18. o Net profit 57 30 2. 6 3- I.")- o (i) Evidently therefore the seed and labour are paid for and the prcjfit realised is enough to cover the loss of one huy crop. RURAI, ECONOMICS 102 1 In this particular case (and also perhaps all through the " Flachgau " where fallow land is maintained), the starting of cultivation with ripening cereals is preferable to cultivation with still green cereals ; on the other hand the qualit} of the forage is not quite so fine. The most frequent rotation in the regions known as arable regions is : r^'e, oats (with clover sowing), clover, wheat, oats, fallow. " Egart " cultivations are however also met with, and also the different variants of the above example. Fallowing is an inherited trouble. One must not reckon too much on the resulting increase of the pro- ductive power of the soil as it does not exceed that of a well manured field under some well cultivated crop or pulses. From this point of view, fallowing may still be adopted in special cases and by way of exception, but not as a cultural system. On several peasant farms the Author made a trial and replaced fallowing by a corresponding period of some cultivated crop and vetches and oats sowu together ; the rye which followed was better in quality than that growing after fallow. For instance, on the farm of the peasant Enzensberger, at Enzesberg near " Thalgau ", the trial of oats and vetches produced a crop of forage amounting to 140 cwt per acre, which is equivalent to 140 : 4 = 35 cwt of hay. In other places the jdeld was still higher : the farm of " Win- kelhof ", for instance, obtained 208^4 cwt of fcrage. Reckoned per labourer, fallowing required 5.5 days labour per acre, oats and vetches only 4.5. According to the Siatisticai Year-Book of the Imperial and Royal Min- istry of Arriciilture, there are in the Salzburg region 70994 acres producing only 23.5 cwt of hay per acre. Assuming, without any allowance for local deficiencies (defective ploughing, etc.), that by undertaking work on a large scale and reckoning only 30 "0 increase, a much higher result will be secured, there would then be obtained 7.07 cwt of hay per acre (30 % of 23.5 cwt) or, for the 70994 acres 412 182 cwt of hay, or again (l cwt being worth 2S. 6d.) £63780, Deducting one-fourth, or £15 945 at the beginning of the year, to cover the expenses of starting, there remain £47 835. Further- more, according to the report of the Imperial Royal Societ}^ of Agriculture at Salzburg, the total grass-lend area in <( T'lachgau » is 45 515 acres; assum- ing that 50 % is made up of sour grass-land, there still remains 22 757 acres of permanent grass-land the yield cf which ma}^ ver}^ well be increased 60 to 70 % as was shown by the example of the farm of Voljern. Reckoning on a production cf 24 cwt per acre, the assumed increase of 30 % in the yield would represent 7.17 cwt per acre, making for 22 756 acres, 163 160 cwt of hay, worth (at 2 5. 6d. per cwt) £20 345. Still according to the report of the same Society, there remain fallow in the " Flachgau " 4 386 acres. Taking as a basis the example of the Enzesberg farm, one would obtain 35 cwt x 4386 — - 153 510 cwt of oats and vetch hay worth (at 2s. 6d. per cwt) £19 138. For the entire Salzburg region, this would mean an annual return of 815 563 cwt of hay. and, in round figures, a net profit in hay value of £i^^ 750, and consequently a great increase in the public wealth of Salzburg. 1022 WINE INDUSTRY AGRICUIvTURAIv INDUSTRIEvS. INDUSTRIES DEPENDING ON PLANT PRODUCTS 794 - Table Wines and Blending Wines of Sicily. — mancini camili.o, in cinmaie vini- colo. 42nd Year, No. 21, pp. 369-371. Casale Monferrato, May 21, 1916. Province of Catania. — This is the province in which wine-growing covers the largest area: iii 940 acres, producing on the average 6875 000 bushels of wine, or more than half of the entire production of the island. In view of the special conditions created by Etna, where the vine extends up to more than 3 000 feet, the province of Catania produces very varied wines, from highly alcoholic to the lightest, chiefly red wines, though there are also excellent white wines. Red Wines of Etna:i) Wines, of the plain of Mascali (Giarre, Riposto and Acireale), blending wines, with distinct aroma, alcoholic and strongly coloured ; 2) Wines of the plain of Calatahiano (Piedimonte Etneo, Fiume- freddo, Eaggi, etc.), less alcoholic, aromatic, fairly agreeable, reserved chiefly for local consumption ; 3) Wines of Feudo, produced in the P'eudo plain ; less coloured and less alcoholic, do not keep so well ; 4) Wines of the middle mountain zone, grown on the slopes of Etna (Randazzo, Einguaglossa, Castiglione), of ruby colour shading to orange; good taste ; agreeable aroma, medium alcohol content ; 5) Hi^h mountain wines, grown on Etna at between 2 600 and 3 goo ft altitude ; these are light and tart table wines. White Wines: The southern slope of Etna (Viagrande, Zafferana, Trecastagni, Pedasi, Nicolosi) produces good white wines. If allowed to mature by ageing, they constitute excellent table wines. The province of Catania also produces white wines of the Marsala type. In 915 wines of this province analysed at the Ro5^al Wine-making School of Catania, the alcohol content ranged from a minimum of 6^ (Giarre) to a maximum of I4°.5 (Acireale). Province of Pai^ERMO. — Possesses 55 600 acres of xnnes producing a little more than 22 million gallons of wine of every description, from the commonest to the finest table and blending, white, red and light red. The blending wines with a fine garnet-red colour are produced b^' " perricone " stock ; when blended with the white " catarratto ", the " perricone " gives fine red table wines. These stocks, with the system of " pesta- imbotta " (i), give excellent light red wines. Some white wines, of the Sauterne type, but warmer and more alcoholic, are also known abroad: the Corvo of the Duke of Salaparuta, the Calattubo and the Zitcco. In (]) According to the system known in Sicily as " pcsta inibotta ", the uuist, produced by treading the grape with the feet shod with nailed boots in masonry vats, is collected in " mastelli " (lower vats), from which it is conveyed to casks (which are filled ^/g) to complete alcoholic fermentation. — Cf. Dr. Antonio Sannino, Trattato compldu di Enologia, Vol. II, p. 39. Conegliano, 1907. (Ed.) WIXE INDUSTRY 10:^ 95 wines of the province of Palermo, analysed at the above mentioned School, the alcohol content ranged from a minimum of 110.6 (Santa Flavia) to a maximum of i8'^.i4 (Partinicc). Proyixce of Messina. — Although the vinej^ards here onl}' occupy the coastal region, they nevertheless co\er 51 400 acres and produce on the average more than 17 600 000 gallons. The most famous wine of the pro- vince is Milazzo, produced by the " Nocera " stock ; this is a much appre- ciated blending wine because it combines fairly strong acidity (6^ to 10°) with colour and rich alcohol content (14° to 160). The wines of Faro are also in high repute in the province. The Aeolian islands produce the famous Malvasia di I i pari, one of the finest white wines, containing from 13° to 15" of alcohol and from 17.28 to 27.20 ounces of dry extract per gallon.. Provinces of Girgenti and Caetanissetta. — The wine making in- dustry is of no particular importance here. More than half the Sicilian vineyards have been restocked with Ame- rican wines. 795 - The Wine of Grapes treated with Arsenates. — Trofimenko m. and obiedoff s in Le Progrcs agricole e! viticolc, Year 33, No. 14, pp. 331-333. ^Nlontpellier, April 2, 1916. By experiments recently carried out at the Schocl cf Agriculture of Montpellier (Frence), the writers show that in the contrcl of the paresites cf the vine, particularly Conchylis amhiguella and Polvchrosis hotrana of the second generation, arsenical salts embodied in wet mixtures are superior to all the other treatments tried. To allow of general application cf these salts, however, there must be the certainty that the wine produced will not be poisonous. Messrs. Moreau and Vinte have already- shown, by experiments carried cut in the north-west of France, that these wines are not toxic. Never- theless, as it ma}^ occur that in these parts the frequent rains wash all the mixture appHed off the grapes, it was desired to repeat the experiments at Montpellier under the mcst favourable conditions for the continuance of the arsenical salts, both on the grapes and in the must. The grapes had been treated late with wet arsenical mixtures ; no rain had occurred between. the treatment and vintage; the arsenical sub,4T:nce formed a iontinuons layer round the grapes, stalks, and stems. The density and acidity of the must obtained from the grape subjected to different treatments (nicotine, arsenic, lime, water 65 ";,) ^nd from the control grapes were practically the same. Wines obtained from grape treated with arsenic showed under analysis the following quantities of arsenious anhydride : Red Wine Wine Iet identified botanically and which the Chinese name merely describes as Tung-shu (palm plant). This palm tree is said to be one of the varieties of Chamaerops Jortunei. The leaves for hat manufacture are gathered at Kwanksien, a few miles from Cheugtu, a hilly part of the country, where the plant grows wild in large numbers, thriving in the rather poor and moist soil. The tree presents different varieties, some specimens reaching a height of 6 feet. For hat-making, however, the leaves of the small, young plants are used as they are more fibrous and flexible, and narrower. The leaves are imported into Cheugtu and are there cut up into long strips of uniform width. From each leaf lOO, no or up to 120 strips are cut, according to the quality of the hat and the flexibility of the leaf. The cut strips are boil- ed in water and steeped in a special bath, from which the}'' emerge light yellow in colour. On drying by exposure to the air the colour turns to pearl. For a hat of the finest quality, 16 leaves, i. e. about 1750 strips, are required, while an ordinary hat requires an average of iioo. The hat is begun and finished by the same workman, and is afterwards washed in an acid solution of secret composition and is next hammered, if desired. Hammering, which is carried out by specialised workmen with polished round stones, is a difficult operation w^hich imparts to the hat a particularly brilliant gloss of very pleasing effect. The best hats turned out by this new Chinese industry, which is barely a year old, are fully equal to genuine panamas. Thej' are in such demand in the home market that it is intended to double the number of workmen ; enquiries from abroad are also beginning to come in. 800 - The Cheese Industry in Portugal. — r.'vmires p.aptista adolpho, in Broieria, Scric de Vulgarizacdo Scientifica, Vol. XIV, Part III, pp. 156-164. Braga, Ma}' 1916. The cheeses manufactured in Portugal proper are of different types, named according to the locality or region of production . They are gener- DAIRYING 1027 ally small, being from i.i to 4.4 lbs. each, or in rare cases 4.4 to 6.6 lbs. Among the oldest kinds manufactured, the chief are : i) " Serra da Estrella " and its varieties " do Alemtejo " and " de Azeita " ; 2) "*Ca- stello Branco " ; 3) "do Rabacal". All of them are made from ewes' milk except " Castello Branco", which is made from goats' milk or goats' and ewes' milk mixed, and they are all soft cheeses. The best is the Serra, which, if well prepared, will compare with any foreign cheese made from ewes' milk. Besides these, however, there are a large number of very differ- ent descriptions of cheese of local manufacture and consumption, among which there are mentioned ; " saloio " made with cows' milk in the neigh- bourhood of Lisbon, and eaten fresh ; the hard goats' milk cheese of Beira- bassa ; and the small cheeses of Serpa weighing from 2.4 to 3.5 ounces and of very delicate flavour. During the last few years two new descriptions worth mentioning have appeared on the market, the only hard cheeses manufactured in Portugal : one is an imitation of " Caerphilly", and the other is known under the name of "Cardiga". Imitations (generally good) of Camembert, Edam and Gouda are also made. In the Azores, where cheese-making is on an industrial scale, the hard cheeses " Pico ", " San Jorge " and " Terceira " (so-called from the name of the islands where chiefly produced) have been manufactured for a long time almost exclusively from cows' milk. From the island of vSan JVIiguel the cheese industry has Icng since disappeared, butter-making having comple- tely taken its place. The cheeses produced in the Azores are held in great esteem in Portugal. They weigh from 11 to 33 lbs. each, and sometimes, though less frequently, 44 to 66 lbs. In Madeira, cheese-making is in process of development. Fairl)"- suc- cessful imitation of the Edam, Gouda and Cheddar cheeses are turned out, skim milk, produced in large quantities by the butter industry, being part- ly utilised. Among the cheeses made in Portugal proper, the Serra fetches the high- est price (from 45 to 60 centavos, i. e. iid. to is. 3d. per lb.) The Alem- tejo is hardly any cheaper, but the island cheeses are a little lower in price ; the minimum market value to which they sometimes drop is 30 centavos, or 7 14 d- per lb. In Portugal, the total annual production of cheese has been calculated to amount to 6 210 tons, being 5 560 tons for Portugal proper and 650 tons for the Azores. These figures do not include Madeira. The quantity manu- factured from ewes' milk is estimated at 3 qoo tons, that from mixed ewes' and goats' milk at i 100 tons, that made from goats' milk at i 200 tons and that from cows' milk at 910 tons. In continental Portugal cheese-making is chiefly a home industry, carried on with primitive implements and on primitive methods. For curd- ling, the rennet of the kid is sometimes used, but mostly the dried flowers of Cinara Cardunculus. There are, however, some large factories equipped with up-to-date plant ; these turn out almost all the cheese manufactured in the islands. The manufacture of imitations of foreign cheeses, chiefly as an ad- 1028 AGRICULTI'RAI, PRODT^CTS : TRADI", AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS : PRESERVING, PACKING, TRANSPORT, TRADE juiict to the butter industry, was encouraged a few years ago by the district agricultural experiment Farms (" Quintas districtaes") and afterwards by the Schools of agriculture, especially those of vSantarem and Coimbra. The chief defect in the cheeses produced in Portugal proper is their lack of standard quality. As to the quantity produced, it is only limited by the milk available, there being a sure market for the entire output. The excessive number of very small farms with little livestock makes it diffi- cult to improve the cheese industry. In the Serra da Estrella, where sheep and goats are most productive, each female, during the lactation period, furnishes 8.8 to 9.8 galls, of milk beyond what is required for rearing, which is a comparatively good output. The flocks, however, are very small, rarely numbering more than 200 head. Mostly they consist of 100 and even less. Here and in Central Beira, the milk production is of equal importance with wool production. In the Alemtejo, milk production is secondary in import- ance to wool, meat and tallow. Though in this latter province the flocks are larger, this is set off by the low figure of production, which sometimes is only 2.2 gaUs per head above the rearing requirements. 801 -The Measures to be adopted for Preventing Unfair Competition in the Cheese Trade. — BArtschi J. and PIaldemann M. (President and Secretary of the Swiss I'nion of Cheese F^xporters). Federation Internationale de Laiterie, I'lime Con'^ns International de Laiterie a Berne, 8 ait lo Juin 1914, IVth Section, Mth Question, Report Xo. 3, pp. 1-3. The writers put forward the following proposals, the carrying out of which may assist in combating imfair competition. 1. Constant work subsidised by the State, with the object of improv- ing the quality of milk and dairy products (keeping powers, fat cont- ent, etc), i. e. : [a) Directions as' to fattening, treatment and feeding of dairy cows (return to nature) ; [b) Instructions as to milking (the utmost cleanliness in milking and handling the milk) ; (c) Strict observance of existing laws (law on the trade in food pro- ducts, special enactments and regulations) ; (d) better technical training for manufacturers (cheese makers), as, if the goods will not keep, they have to be sold at any price, and the fluctuations are in that case ruinous. The importance of milk and dairj'- products in human food alone justi- fies these measures, apart from the enormous value involved. 2. Establishment of international standards for a uniform method of judgment and analysis of cheese, which would allow for present commer- cial practices and training of specialist experts whose opinion would be decisive in disputes. 3. More intensive joint work between co-operative organisation, Chambers of Commerce and the authorities. 4. Thorough systematic propaganda for the increased consumption of cheese as a healthy food for the people. 802 - Changes occurring in Potatoes during Storage. - .sec No. 743 of ibxs Bulletin. PlvANT DISEASES DISEASES NOT DUE TO PARASITES OR OF UNKNOWN ORIGIN. 803 - Gummosis in the Citrus Plantations of Florida. — Stevens h. e. in University of Florida, A'^ncultuial Expfrmu-nt Station, Kipcrl lor the Fiscal Year cndiifj June 30th, 1914, pp. 57-71. Tallahassee, Fla., 1915. Gummosis is common in the citrus plantations of Florida, causing great- er damage year by year, especially in the north. Among citrus trees, C. Aurantium amara alone appears exempt. Very little is known as to the origin and cause of this disease. It is certain that its development is influenced by several factors, and although many species of fungi are associated with gummosis, none of them can be regarded as the true pathogenic agent. With the object of making a contribution to the study of this interest- ing question, the writer undertook a series of researches and experiments and a very careful investigation into the course of development of the infested areas. vSeveral inoculation trials were made, both with crude diseased material and with pure cultures of Diplodia natalensis and Pho- tnopsis Ciiri. The 18 infested areas studied for a period of 13 months were selected so as to represent as closely as possible the different stages of development of the disease. Three stages are distinguished : i) the tissues seem impregnated with water over small portions of the bark ; small lesions and a few cracks appear from which a slight amount of gum exudes ; 2) The secretion of gum increases, the bark tissue hardens and cracks all over ; 3) Below the diseased part, the cambium forms a new parenchj'nia, and the diseased portions are ultimately completely eliminated, leaving a dry rough scar. The first observations were made in May 191 3 and afterwards repeated at intervals of three, ten and thirteen months. 1030 DISEASES XOT DUE TO I'ARxVSlTES, OR OF UKKXOWN ORIGIN Of the eighteen infected areas examined at the time the observations were begun, eight appeared already cured, while in the ten others the infec- tion was in full course of development. Five of these latter always con- tinued active, two recovered and then became active again, and finally three seemed fully healed at the end of the thirteenth month. With regard to the eight other areas, healthy in appearance, four re- mained so for some time, in two the disease became active for some length of time, and the last two, with the disease in active progress, continued in this condition with extensive mortification of the tissues and abundant secretion of gum. As will be seen, the development of the disease is verj' slow, with al- ternating active and passive phases, which may be related to variations in the degree of resistance of the plant attacked. When healing takes place, the whole of the infection has not been eliminated through the tissues of the host, but the pathological process appears to be arrested, perhaps owing to the formation of new tissues which react with more intensity against the disease. This is the period of greatest resistance of the plant. Afterwards the continuation of the attacks, excessive production of fruit, and other factors also, weaken and exhaust the plant, lowering its resisting powers so that the infected area reverts to the active stage, and the disease spreads to the surrounding tissues. The writer also carried out inoculation experiments with diseased tissue, with cultures of Diplodia natalensis and with cultures of Phomopsis Cilri, both on young orange trees in pots and on adult plantation trees. No defi- nite conclusions can be drawn from the results obtained, as it was not poss- ible in any case to produce the formation of the characteristic infected areas. In the adult trees there was, it is true, a slight secretion of gum, with partial mortification of the tissues, but it was only for a very short time, and over very limited extents of the bark. The results are still more negative in relation to young plants, which are undoubtedly endowed with a higher degree of resistance. In the control experiments the best results were obtained by means of cupric paste and carbolineum : (i) Cupric paste : solution of sulphate of copper and milk of lime in equal parts ; mix thoroughl^^ then add lime until the mixture acquires a certain consistency. The infected areas were cured in the proportion of 64 %. (2) Carbolineum diluted in soap water : cures 60 %. Before applying the antiseptic, it is necessary to cut away unstinting- ly all the infected wood and the adjacent parts, and not to confine oneself to simply sci aping and removal of the bark, as is usually done in the majorit}' of cases. 804 - Citrus Barkrot in the Philippines. -/erbst c, 11. in Jiu- FhHippinc Aiincuituud Review, Vol. \'1I1, No. 2, pp. 'i5-y7, MaiiiUu, it>i5. The appearance of the disease known as " citrus barkrot " has caused serious injury to the cultivation of citrus trees in the province of Batangas, Philippine Islands. This disease having broken out with special severity DISEASES NOT DUE TO PARASITES, OR OF UNKNOWN ORIGIN I03I after the eruption of the Taal volcano in January, 1911, many growers believed that the eruption, which defoliated the trees, is responsible for the outbreak;- The mandarin [Citrus nobilis Lour.) appears extremely susceptible to the disease. The " calamondin " (C mitis Blanco) is also attacked, but with much less severity. The sweet orange (C. Aurantmm L.) and the po- melo (C. decumana L.) are much more resistant than the mandarin to barkrot, being seldom attacked to a seri6us degree. Barkrot has much in common with gummosis, with the difference that the disease is an exudation of sap instead of gum, and that young trees and seedlings are immune. The characteristic of barkrot in which it is similar to gummosis is that in some cases badly infected trees mature their fruit prematurely, the fruit showing a bright yellow colour while still very- small. This is particularly noticeable in the mandarin, which usually does not colour well in the Philippines. The disease makes its presence known by the oozing out of sap from the bark, which softens and forms a putrid sore, varying in size from one- half to 3 ^/g centimetres on the trunk and branches, generally at the height of ^/.2 to I 1/2 metres from the ground, though the disease occurs as high as 3 to 4 metres on the larger branches. Where the outbreak is se- vere these spots occur tliickly and finally unite, with the result that the tree or branch is quickly girdled. Numbers of insects are attracted to the sores by the putrid sap. and the spots are usually' found to be infected with the larvae of various insects which keep up the irritation. As the tree strives to overcome the disease, the spots dry up. the edges of the sores be- gin to heal over, and the bark curls or scales. On brushing off the dead bark the new wood is seen forming on the edges of the sores, giving to badly affected branches a queer distorted appearance. The term " barkrot " is to some extent misleading, as the disease does not originate in the bark. If the bark and cambium layer are cut away and the underlying wood carefully examined, a dark-coloured area, usually of a brown to a reddish tinge, is found. This extends into the wood to different depths. As in gummosis, the sap collects in small pockets be- tween the wood and cambium laj^er until the bark is separated from the wood and finally split by the pressure within, so that the sap oozes out. The Philippine Bureau of Science has carried on investigations on bark- rot, but failed to find an organism to which the disease might be attribut- ed. Apparently it is a physiological disease produced by unfavourable soil and cultural conditions. The irregularity of the water supply is also a factor. Proper ploughing and cultivation varying in depth each year, and the planting of leguminous cover crops during the rainy season, are apparently essential in the prevention and cure of barkrot. The cover crop should be cut and left as a mulch during the dry season. The treatment of the tree itself is a matter of secondary inqjortancc. The earth round the tree should be thoroughl}' loosened and stirred. The diseased spots should be cut out down to the healthy wood, at once 1032 DISEASES NOT DUK TO PARASITES, OK OV UXKNOWN ORIGIN painting the wound with a protective material. The Philippine Bureau of Agriculture has worked satisfactorily along the above lines, obtaining improvement which leaves little to be desired under this treatment. 803 - " Parch Blight " on Douglas Fir in Oregon. — munger Thornton t. in The Plant Wii)l(i,ViA. HI, No. J, ])]). 4')-|7. I'.altiiiKirc-, Md. February i<)i(). Quite frequently, in the spring of the year, the foliage of the Douglas fir trees in the vicinity of Portland, Oregon, turns brown, and entire trees are sometimes as sere as though recently dead or dying. With the begin- ning of the growing season, however, most of the buds open normally, and by midsummer the trees have regained their usual green appearance, many of the old needles dropping off. The injury is generally limited to temporary inhibition of growth, with a slight loss of timber production. Isolated trees are more liable generally to the disease than dense groves. P^xposed eastern sides of forest are more af- fected than the western sides in protected locations. The blight is due to the dry east winds that occasionally sweep across the Cascade Moimtains, the vicinity of Portland being particularly exposed to the direct sweep of these winds down the canyon of the Columbia river. The Douglas fir [Pseudotsuga Douglasii) in this region is called the Coast form, and is particularly dependent upon a humid, mild climate, and conse- quently suffers from, these hot, dry blasts, which cause excessive transpira- tion and produce the above injuries. 806 - Fruit Injury during the Fumigation of Citrus Trees: Causes and Remedies (i). -- \AoGLtrM R. S. in The Fruit World of Australasia, Vol. XVII, No. 3, pp. 70-72. Mellxnirr^-, March ist, 1916. / The production of citrus fruits in Australia amounted in 1913-1914 to 1,341,878 bushels of oranges of the value of £ 497,286, while that of ler/lons was 297,083 bushels valued at £ 97, 753. The problem of protecting xiitrus trees against their enemies therefore is of great importance. The r/iethod of control most in use is that of fumigation with hydrocyanic acid, a very effective system, but one which sometimes pits the fruits. The writer proposed to investigate methods of avoiding such injury. The pitting of fruit caused by hydrocyanic acid fumigation has been put down by spec- ialists to various causes, such as sulphuric acid, the presence of nitric acid in the sulphuric acid, the too rapid evolution of the gas. the absorption of the gas by the water on the tree, an abrasion of the fruit produced by the tent placed over the tree, etc. The impurities contained in the two re- agents used, however, potassium cyanide and sulphuric acid, are in such small quantities that they cannot produce an}- marked elTect. On the other hand there can be no question of the pitting being caused by minute drops of sulphuric acid thrown off in the over-rapid evolution of the hydrocyanic acid, as in that case the injur}'- would only affect the fruits placed lowest and in the immediate vicinity of the generator. The most seriously injured fruits, however, are those at the top, and sometimes they are the only ones (i) Sec also B. June i';ii. No. kKv. (/'-'/■) DISEASES DUE TO BACTEREl, FUNGI AND OTHER LOWER PLANTS I033 injured. If fumigation is carried out before sunset the pitting is sometimes only found on the sunward side. Finally, if instead of sulphuric acid phos- phoric acid, which is stable and has a very slow reaction is used, the ex- tent of pitting is not in the least reduced nor, as the author ascertained expe- rimentally, is it reduced when chemically pure hydrocyanic acid is employed. It may therefore be concluded with certaint}' that the pitting is caused by hydrocyanic acid and by no other cause. It depends : (i) on the quantity of gas used and the length of fumigation ; (2) on the condition of the plants treated ; (3) on atmospheric conditions. Generally speaking, a plant weakened by gummosis, for instance, sus- tains more injury than a vigorous one. The pitting is more severe in fruits with thin skin, especially if the latter has recent abrasions. The Author found that on fruits pricked with a fine needle, then subjected to fumiga- tion with chemically pure hydrocyanic acid, a depressed pitted zone always formed round the prick. Consequently the bulk of the injury arises from lesions occasioned during the pulling over of the tents. The pitting is much more severe when fumigation is carried out : i) during hot sunny days ; 2) when the temperature is near 32^ Fahr ; 3) dur- ing exceptionally hot nights ; 4) when a strong wind blows and shakes the tents ; 5) during very wet nights. Excessive moisture in itself occasions more injury than all the other factors together, precisely because it renders the tents more impermeable to gas and heavier, which increases the injury already sustained by the trees when they were pulled over. The bulk of the injury therefore may be avoided by taking the follow- ing precautions : preventing the tents striking the trees as far as possible ; using poles higher than the trees to support the tents ; stopping the fumiga- tion when the tents are heavy^ with wet or when the trees are wet ; carrjnng out no fumigation during over-hot days, or when windy, or when the tempe- rature is too low (the author advises adopting 36^ F. as the minimum temp- erature) . Trees sprayed with Bordeaux mixture may not be fumigated until a year later. Failure to observe this rule causes exfoliation. The Author never found any injury follow from fumigation following treatment with inie and sulphur solution. DISEASES DUE TO FUNGI, BACTERIA AND OTHER LOWER PLANTS. 807 - On the Original Range of Spongospora subterranea. —hYu^N g. r. ami gknek.alitiks RCGEkS I.E. in Scituct, New Series, VoL XLII, No. i " Strube's hybrid No. 210 " with 62.98 %, " Buhleudorf wheat with vSperhng brown grain " with 64.5 % and " Heines Teverson " with 85.77 % of diseased ears. The least resistant summer wheats were ; " Green mountain " with 24.2 % and " Rimpau red Schlanstedt " with 45.4 % of infected ears. " Wliite winter bearded spelt "had 44.87 % and the" two-grained winter white semi-awned " had 85.92 % of diseased ears. Between the high susceptibility and low susceptibility groups are the other varieties tested. It is certain, therefore, that in addition to the vari- eties fairly or highly prone to the disease, there are others which rarely or 1036 RESISTANT PI. ANTS never contract it. These differences might perhaps be still more clearly shown if pure lines were used for experiment, which was not the case here. These experiments have also proved that among some descriptions of one and the same variety of wheat, a certain agreement is found as re- gards their resisting powers to smut, but that this is not observed in the most important cultivated forms (ordinary and spelt). The experiments made with common wheat and spelt generally showed that when a wheat is resistant to smut, another belonging to the same botanical group does not necessarily behave in the same way. The degree of predisposition must rather be regarded as a character typical of the wheat under examination. The author also endeavoured, by infection tests, to study the influence of external factors on the result of contamination with spores of the parasite. Even in the case cf wheats which were regarded as prone to the disease the figures obtained in the diiferent years for the same wheat differed greatly, sometimes falling to zero. It follows that the fact that an artificially in- fected wheat has not contracted the disease does not necessarily mean that it is refractory to it. The great influence of external factors on the result ot infection partly explains the contradictory observations made, especially by farmers, with regard to the smut-resisting powers of different wheats. In well-conducted experiments, however, a fair agreement of the different wheats is nevertheless observed. For instance, out of 17 wheats studied by the author and after- wards also tested by TubEuf and Hecke, the same wheats were found prone or resistant to smut in all the investigations. The writer concludes that Hecke's opinion that resistance to the disease is in each wheat a constant character influenced by other factors is correct. Assuming that the degree of resistance is a constant character of the wheat, it must be concluded that this character is hereditary. No such experiments as were undertaken for " rust " have as yet been carried out, to determine whether susceptibility to the disease is hereditary. The writer does not think that the observations relating to rust can be extended to smut. Without taking into account the question of heredit}', the attempt has already been made to clear up the matter of the greater or lesser resistance of certain wheats to smut. TubEiif suggested that a relation might exist between resistance to smut and the rapidity of the germination of the wheat grains, those wheats which germinate rapidly being the more resistant. This opinion is also supported bj'- AppEL and Gassner, who claim to have actually found such a relation. The writer's experiments nevertheless have shown that these results do not admit of generalisation and that at any rate this relation does not exist in a large number of common wheats, hard wheats, winter and summer spelts. HeckE obtained the same residt. Nor is there any relation between the germinating capacity and the smut resistance, as was proved by the writer. The di ff erence in smut-resistance is thought b> the writer to be due rather to differences in the chemical composition of the plantlets. The obser- vations in respect to variou'=! diseases (rust, mildew, etc.), showing that the DisiCASKS OF^x'ARiou.- Clisi-:.\si;s oi' xAuuons crops 2) Cercospora Kopkei {" enfennedad de las mauchas rojizas "). — In spring and autumn, especially during the rainy season, the occurrence is frequently noted in the plantation of oblong red spots, irregular in outline, extending over the leaves. When the infection is severe it causes withering. On keeping the infested leaves in a verj^ moist atmosphere, growth of the hyphae of the mycelium of the pathogenic agent, Cercospora Kopkei, is soon induced. Using cultures of this fungus it is very easy to produce the disease artificially, though it does not cause great damage, at any rate in the plantations of Tucuman. In any case, it is effectively controlled by means of Bordeaux mixture applied only to the outer and most exposed parts of the plantation, where wind-borne conidia are usually deposited. (3) Leptosphaeria Sacchari (" enfermedad de las manchas anulares "). Oval blotches, 3 mm. in width and 7 to 9 mm. in length, appear on the leaves attacked by this fungus. In an advanced stage of the disease these blotches are white or yellow, dry in the centre and darkest at the edge. The dam- age caused by Leptosphaeria is mostly inconsiderable. For control, it is advised that all the infected parts should be gathered and burnt. The author also mentions : Physalospora tucumaniensis Speg. in Florida, at San Pablo and in New Bavaria: it attacks eld and dying leaves, and there- fore does no ver}^ great harm ; Ventiiria sterilis Speg., PhyUostida Sacchari Speg., Melanconium Sacchari Massee ; Glenospora Sacchari Speg., Fmuago Sacchari Speg., and Colletoirichum falcatum Went., the presence of which however has not yet been definitely established. 814 - Fungous Diseases of Coffee in Malaya. — Belgr.WE W. N. C. in The Aiiricultitral Bul- letin of the Federated Malay States,'Vol. IV, No. 4, pp. 111-113. Singapore, January i<)i6. The coffee disease known as " leaf spot " caused by Hemileia vastatrix occurs locall}^ in Malaya, but not to any considerable extent. The fungi of the genera Hyalopus and Cephalosporium probably batten on the Hemi- leia and are alwa^'-s found on the ripe patches of this rust. The foliage is also attacked but less seriously, b}' Phyllosticta coffeicola, Coniothyrium Coffeae and a species of Colletoirichum. Among diseases cf the stem is the one called " die-back ", which at present is cf no economic importance. On sectioning the woody mass of the infected parts, it is seen to be completely over-run bjnnterwoveu. hyphae belonging to two finigi of the genera Diplodia and CoUetolrichitm. The mycelium of a basidiomycete, the fructifications of which have not yet been discovered, sometimes develops between the bark end wood cf the roots, rotting and destroying the tissue. There are often found, especially on the " robusta " berries, epithelial spots and lesions due, according to Zimmermann, to the action of weather agencies. They do not injure the coffee, but ma}' lead to the attack of dangerous fungous diseases. Among the fungi observed on the fruits mpy be mentioned : Pestalozzia Coffeae, Hemileia vastatrix and species of the genera Stilhum, Fusarium, Coniothvriwn and Capnodiurn, the latter in conjunction with scale insects. DlSliASlvS OF \AKIOUS CKOl'S I04I 815 - Ascochyta hortorum, a new Pest of the Artichoke in Italy. — Gabotto i,. in Rivisla di Fciloln-iu vf^iinlc, N'llth Year, No. 2. pp. 45- p'. Ptivia, ISIarch 1916. In February i()i(). the Author observed the presence of Jscoihyta hoHlontin {>Speg.) Smith on artichokes from the ItaHan Riviera in the neigh- bourhood of Genoa. The infested artichokes were only half the normal size- and badly damaged. \n enormous quantity of brown pycnidia were found on the scales attacked, on the peduncles and inside the rotting receptacles. ]\Ian\ bacterial forms were combined with the fungus. A. horlorinn. already reported on several kitchen-garden Solanaceae (i), had not been met with on artichokes. Apparently it has undertaken the conquest of "nevv- hosts even belonging to different plant families, which renders it still more formidable. 816 - Septor/a Apii var, Mag-nusiana and 5. Apii-Graveolentis n. sp., injurious to Celery in the Neighbourhood of Petrograd. — dorogix (V. in Muhu- ciiicpcDUin ■'}('. If. inhh.ii:/. Bhiiio jio M/hii.iiw/ii ii 'Pinnonamo.io^lii XHeHaio h'o.uiiiiirwa. Mcnni'piii.thi no Miiho.mziu n 'l>it))in>iain():K)iiu Porciu. IVIinistr>- »f Agriculture, Office of Mycolog\' and Plant Pathology of the Scientific Committee. Materials relating to Mycolog>' and Plant Pathology, ist Year, Part 4, pp. 57-75- Petrograd, 1915. In a garden near \'olkor, Petrograd. a large number of adult celery plants were observed to be affected with a disease the most conspicuous symptom of which is numerous spots on the foliage. In Jtily this disease appeared sporadically on separate plots and beds, and in August the ap- pearance of the diseased areas was very unsatisfactory. The diseased plants of the different groups presented such divergent characters as to suggest many di.^tinct pathogenic agents. Microscopic observations however only disclosed two species of Septoria, which are dealt with in the present work. The plants attacked by the same parasite may present different symp- toms according to cultivation or seasonal conditions, as was ascertained b}- comparing one year with another or separate distant places, but in the present instance the most divergent symptoms appeared simtiltaneously and in the same place under quite identical conditions of environment for all plants and groups. One of the Septoria might be identified with S. Mugnusiana All. ( —P/iyl- daena Magnuaicma [All.) Bres.], but the writer, as a result of a careful examination of the morphological and physiological characters, proposes to regard it as a simple variant of 5. Apii [Br. and Cav.] Chester (= 5. Apii [Br. and Cav.] Rostr.) ; we should thus have : Septoria Apii (Br. et Cav.) Chester var. Magnusiuna (All.). The disease caused by this fungus occurs in three different aspects : i) round red blotches, 5 to 10 mm in diameter, darker towards the edges ; few pycnidia scattered in the blotches, towards the end of the leaves ; 2) ochre blotches, pale, bordered wi^-h yellow ; 3) greyish-white blotches with many pycnidia. The blotches may sometimes be completely absent and the p\cnidia gathered in small grou])s spread over the leaf surface. (i) S.-C /;. April 191 J, Xo. 7t5 (Kd.) 1042 DISEASES OF VARIOUS CROPS The other Septoria coukl not be identified with any hitherto known form and is described as a new species under the name cf Septoria Apii graveolen- tis n. sp. The symptoms of the disease are very varied : i) inconspicuous hght yellow spots, diameter 0.5 to 3 mm, the pycnidia spread over the entire leaf on the spots and outside, separately and in groups ; 2) spots of vague outline, reddish- yellow in colour ; the pycnidia, few in number, are first re- stricted to the leaf tissues, afterwards partly emerging ; ]) round spots, dirty yellow, maximum diameter 5 mm, in which the pycnidia are situated; 4) dark chestnut spots, lighter towards the centre, strewn with pycnidia. Both with Septoria Apii (Br. and Cav.) Chester var. Magnusiana and S. Apii graveolentis n. sp., the disease begins with the lowest leaves; these turn yellow without completely withering or drying up. Weather condi- tions hav'e some influence on the growth and spread of the fungus. After a severe epidemic in 1913, the disease reappeared in the summer of IQ14, but disappeared almost at once owing to the drought which prevented germina- tion of the spores. The Septorif! have no type of fnictification ether than the pycnidia. The latter form during the summer, but their spnies retain their germinating capacity through the winter and .spring. Infected leaves and other vege- trble debris remaining on the ground may thus become the source of an epidemic in the following year. The pycnidia also develop in the seeds. Thej' contaminate the young plants from the latter, and eventually, after an in- cubation period of three or four weeks, produce the characteristic degenera- tion of the leaf in the already transplanted and growing plants. The following means of control are advised : i) careful and thorough examination of seeds ; 2) treatment of seeds with dilute formalin, strength 1 : 300, for 2 hours; 3) removal from seed plots and destruction of all young plants showing light yellow streaks ; 4) picking off the diseased leaves dur- ing the summer and pulling up the entire plant in case of very widespread and marked infection ; 5) gathering and destruction of all vegetable refuse after the crop. Finally, attention is drawn to the fact that this refuse nrust not be used as manure, even if the infection was very slight and only involved a small, number of plants. 817 - A New Disease of the Bamboo caused by Scinhia bambusae n. sp., in Italy. — TtJRCONi Malusio ill Rendiconti delle scdute delta Kealc Accademia dei Liiwei, Classe di scienze fisichc, matcmatiche c naturdli, 5th Series, Vol. XXV, 1st Half -Year, Part 7, pp. 528-532. Rome, April 2, 1916. In a plantation of Bambusa mitis Poir. in the Botanical Gardens of Pa- via, during the summer of 1914 the branches were wholly or partially dried up, whitish in colour and showed a number of small black blisters. The first symptoms of the disease appeared on branches and twigs of all sizes, prefer- ably at the tip, chiefly on the small branches carrying leaves. Small brownish spots or streaks appear and these afterwards spread and combine, forming blotches which finally occupy several intcrnodes. The di.seased parts, which are brown at first, gradually turn whitish and dry, becoming DISEASKS OF VARIOUS CROPS IO43 covered at the same time with the characteristic small black blisters. The disease usually extends from the tip towards the base f the branches ; sometimes the infection is confined to the internodes and the middle or base. In these cases the portion of the branch above the infected part dies and dries away, without showing the characteristic fructifications of the parasite, which onl}^ form in the infected parts after their death. This disease is caused by the parasitism of a new species of Dothi- deaceae, of which a description is given in the asccphore form under the name of Scirrhia Bambiisae n. sp. and in the conidial form under the name of Melanconium Bambusae n. sp. The disease was reproduced by artificially^ infecting B. mitis and B. gracilis Hort. with the fungus. 81 s - Ascochyta clematidina, on Stems and Leaves of Clematis. — gloyer, w. o in AVk' York Agricultural Expcnmcnt Sialioii, dcneva, T echnical Bulletin No. 44. pp. 3-I4. Tlates I-IV. Washington, 1915. The rotting of the stems and mottling of the leaves of Clematis are due to the fungus Ascochyta clematidina (Thiimen). The disease first occurs in the form of blotches on the surface of the leaves. On drying, these blotches take on a dark chestnut colouration, with red margins. From the leaf the mycelium makes its way down the length of the petiole as far as the axil where it develops in the surrounding tissue, forming a continuous zone of infection which causes the death of the portions of the plant above this point. The parasite may also deve- lop directly on damaged epithelium in the neighbourhood of the leaf axil. In both cases new buds and shoots continue to develop below the in- fected region, until the mycelium of the fungus, spreading downwards to- wards the base of the plant, eventually infects the whole of the aerial por- tion and causes the death of the" host. Hibernation in the open, whether in artificial culture or in infected vegetable debris, does not destroy the parasite. As soon as the temperature permits, growth recommences. A. clematidina is easily isolated and develops readily in any of the usual media. Inoculations with pure cultures (mycelium) into Clematis pani- ciilata and C. Jackmanni gave positive results, and the mycelium derived from artificially infected plants and inoculated on healthy specimens readily reproduced the disease. A. clematidina is clearly distinct from other more common species and inoculation experiments on pumpkins, beans, peas and elms gave negative results. Sprays containing the spores of the parasite in suspension produce the characteristic blotches on the leaves of Clematis, especially when the tempe- rature is about 730 F. The following methods of control are recommended : i) transplantation into the open when one year old, allowing sufficient space between the plants foi access of air, sun, etc; 2) cutting and destroying all infected portions, subsequently spraying lighth with fimgicides. The following mixture is I044 DISEASKS OV N'AKIOt.'H CROPS recommended : Sulphur i lb, soft soap 6 lbs, water 12 ^/^ gallons ; 3) remove and destroy all vegetable remains among which the parasite is capable of living as a saprophyte. 819 - Investigations into a Disease of the Cones of Pinus pinea in Italy. — tetri 1,. and Adani A. in Aniuili ilcllu R. Accadcmiii ili A'^iicdlluni di iLriiin, \'f)l. 1,IX, 23 pp., 12 Fig., I ri. Turin, 191 6. . The disease of the cones of Pinus Pinea I^., long known to gatherers of cones in the pine groves of Migliarino, San Rossore, Cecina and Castel Fusano, i;nder the name of " pine gallerone " and " pine pagliose ", are due to the same identical pathogenic agent. The sj-mptoms caused by the latter however differ to some considerable extent, according to whether the disease develops in autumn or spring. " Pine gallerone ". — An ochre hued spot first appears in May or June, and from the line of contact between two adjoining scales rapidly spreads right through the cone. The loss of water being fairly large, the outer sur- face of the scales' appears shrunken. Resin exudes here and there from the blackest portions. At the points where the infertion is oldest, black pus- tules cf irregular shape form, pusliing up and .splitting the epiderm of the scales. The shell cf the seeds is normal, biit the kernel is reduced to a grey or 5'ellowish powder. The weight of these cones is lighter than that of healthy cones which have reached the same stage cf development. The browning of the scale tissue and the destruction of the kernels are accompanied b}^ the presence of the mycelium of a fungus, which spreads from the upper surface of the scales through their thickness and penetrates the endosperm of the seeds, the oily substance of which a^^pears to act as a powerful stimulant on the mycelium in question. The black external bhsters are the pycnidia of the fungus, which may be classified as a new species of Sphaeropsis {Sph. nccatrix Petri et Adani). " Pine pagliose " . — The first spots marking the infection are observ- able in September and throughout the month cf October. The external char- acters of the diseased cones do not differ very much from those of the " pine gallerone ". Thus, the discolouration of the scales, the exudation of resin, destruction of the endosperm, the presence of the mycelium and the pycnidia of Sphaeropsis are characters common to the two forms of degeneration ; in " pine pagliose " however the weight is equal, or nearly so, to that of healthy cones, the surface of the scales does not shrink, a number of seeds remain intact and retain their commercial value. In these cones, owing to the more advanced lignification of the tissues and the less favourable season, the infection proceeds more slowly ; it was therefore easier to ascertain the course it take« inside the cone. The myce- lium penetrates between the scales and rapidly attacks the soft parenchyma which envelopes the seed. From this point it spreads through the thickness of the scale towards the lower (external) surface from which the sporigenic organs afterwards escape. From what has just been said, it will readily be understood that the two names given by pine cone gatherers to the diseased cones only correspond to two slightly different aspects produced by the same i)athogenic cause in DISKASKS OF VARIOUS CROPS IO45 the nearly ripe cones, according to whether the}- are attacked in spring or autumn. It is quite natural that cones attacked in May or June when the tissues are soft and grov^'th is still in progress should suffer a large loss of water, and consequently be very light ; besides the seeds must obviously suffer as a whole from the consequence of the infection owing to the fact that between spring and autumn there is j^lenty of time for the parasite to exert a destructive action on the entire cone. On the other hand, when the infection occurs in autumn, just before the cones are gathered, the time avail- able for the parasite to encroach on the seeds is very short, both because the spread of the m^^celium is hindered bv the thoroughly lignihed and fully developed tissues, and because the drying of the cones for the purpose of extracting the seeds stops the further spread of the mycelium. If, however, owing to favourable circumstances, the infection is able to continue for a long time, the cones attacked in autumn (" pine pagliose ") may have nume- rous features in common with those attacked in the spring (' 'pine gallerone"). The immediate cause of the disease is Sph. necatrix. This is proved not only by microscopic examination, but also by experiments of inocula- tion on healthy cones, in which the disease was successfully- reproduced in this way. As regards means of control, the following are advised : i) complete gathering and burning of the diseased ccnes ; this precaution must be strongly^ recommended to pine cone gatherers, who often emit to gather the " pine gallerone " which are richer in pycnidia of the parasite than the " pine pagliose ". The cones of the " pine gallerone " should even be gather- ed as early as June, when dispersion of the spores has already begun, because on this depends in part the intensity- of autumn infection ; 2) thin- ning out the pine grove as much as possible, so that the plants are under the most favourable conditions and get the largest possible quantity- of light and air. There should therefore be a distance of at least 33 feet between the adult plants ; very dense old pine woods in which there are from loo-iio trees per acre are the worst sufferers from this disease. 820 - Common Phosphorescent Toadstool (Pleurotus nidiformis) and " Sticky timber Phollote " {Pholiota. adiposa), Agaricineae attacking Wood, in Aus- tralia. — Cleland J- Burton and Cheel Edwin in A ii^yi cultural Gazette of New South Wales, Vol. XXVII, 3rd. Part, pp. 201-202, PI. 5-6. Sydney, March 2, 1916. A description of Pleurotus nidiformis Berck. (common phosphorescent toadstool) and Pholiota adiposa Fries (" sticky^ timber pholiote "), which destroy the wood by piercing it with their my-celial filaments and thus bringing about decomposition. The former occurs widely in all the States of the Australian Common- wealth. It grows at the foot of living tree trunks (Eucalyptus and ether species), or on dead stems. It is perhaps of no great economic importance. Nevertheless, it would be advisable to destroy- it by^ burning wherever found. It has been described by- various authors under different names : P. candescens, P. lampas, P. phosphoreus and P. illnminans. Pholiota adiposa appears on the trunks of trees at a height which may be 22 ft and more. In Europe this fungus is very^ injurious. In Australia 1046 WliEDS AND PARASITIC FU^WKRING I'LAMTS it is found only at one point in New South Wales in dense wood of Mount Wilson, where it was perhaps introduced with European tree species. It has also been reported in Queensland. It is recommended to destroy it b}' fire whenever found, in order to extirpate it complef ely from Australia while still very rare there. WEEDS AND PARASITIC FLOWERING PLANTS. 821 - Goatsrue (Ga/eg-a officinalis), a Weed in New Zealand. — Cockayne a. ii. in I'hc Journal 0/ A'^riculfiti'c, Vol. XII, No. 2, pp. 125-130, i PI. Wellington, February 21, 1916. The Noxious Weeds Act, which has been in force for more than .sixteen years -in New Zealand, makes the destruction of certain plants obliga- tory. Some of these are regarded as noxious throughout New Zealand, others only in certain di.stricts. according to a declaration bj'the loral au- thorities. The goatsrue {Galega officinalis) -has also just [been included in this latter category. This species of Leguminosae cultivated in gardens in several parts of New Zealand, has only become wild on the banks and in the old alluvial soil of the rivers Manawatu and Pohangina. It spreads rapidly along roads paved with the gravel of these rivers. As usually, Galega is net eaten in sufficient qusntities b}^ animals to prevent it flowering, it spreads rapidly- wherever it takes hold, unless the soil is covered with a thick ccating of grass. In New Zealand, the Galega often attains 3 ^ ft. and more in height. It gener- ally flowers towards the second week in December and remains in flower for abouc two months. If mown a little before flowering, it flowers in March; if the plants are cut at intervals, they may even flower three times in one season. The ordinary method, therefore, which consists in preventing the flowering of weeds by a single mowing per year, is almost valueless for this weed, which must be turned in. The Galega is regarded as a weed because : i) it is very little liked b}' cattle ; 2) it tends to choke more desirable plants ; 3) it is considered poisonous. Towards the end of autumn and in winter, animals feed to some small extent on the branches of the plant when they begin to dry. The same is the case at the beginning of spring, before the branches harden. On the other hand, all animals refuse the plant during summer, when it is in full vigour. This seems to be due to the bitterness of its leaves. More- over, at some seasons its leaves are m^arkedly poisonous to sheep, and per- haps also to yoimg cattle. Experiments in France have shown that 10 lbs. of these leaves are sufficient to kill a sheep. Goastrue, however, has some useful properties. It has even been advis- ed as a forage crop," and is in fact cultivated for that purpose in some parts of Switzerland. If mown when still tender and allowed to wither slightly, it is agreeable to cattle and may be fed to them without danger. INJURIOUS INSECTS ! GENERAL IO47 f The writer thinks that Goastrue would do excellent service as green manure, especially for very light sandy soils, for which it would perhaps be better even than lupin. It only remains to ascertain whether turning in would suffice to destroy it. Goastrue is plentifully provided with root tubers. To control this weed, it must be mown at least three times a year, cr turned in and a mixture of grass consisting principally of Dadylis glomerala and Lolium italicum >own on top. It would also be as well, for some time, to roll the grass-land thoroughly. In those parts where the plant special- ly abounds, clearing of the grass-land and conversion into arable land is ad- visable. INJURIOUS INSECTS AND OTHER IvO\VER ANIMALS. 822 - The Entomological Society of Moscow, Russia. — i. boldirev v. f. History of the Foimdation of the Entomological Society of Moscow, in IlrsaroCmi fl MocHoecKaio Sumo- ji().i()!ii'i('<-i,(Uo Ooii^ecmea (Bulletin of the Entomological Society of Moscow), Vol. I, pp. 9-13, Moscow, 1915. — II. KUL.^GIN N. M. Programme of Work of the Entomological Societ3' of Moscow, Ibid., pp. 1-8. The Entomological Society of Moscow, the third of its kind in Russia, was founded in 1913. It owes its formation to the combination of three As- sociations of Entomologists of Moscow which had until then existed sepa- rately. After referring to the importance of insects to agriculture, the writer adds that the Society has two methods of achieving its object, one is that of enricliing science Vi}' means of original research, the other the spread of scientific knowledge and training of y^oung scientists. As regards its practical aims the new Society has alread} made its first contribution by instituting a short course (from the j6th Feb- ruary to the loth March 1915) for the training of a technical staff in the control of locusts and field voles. The number of persons attending the lectures was about 150. Most of the hearers consisted of male and female ■ students of the Higher Schools of Moscow. The said Society has its own organ: « nsB-bcriH INfocKOBrKaro Hutomo- .:ioiniHecKaro OoniecTBo » (Bulletin of the Entomological vSociety of Moscow), the first volume of which appeared in 1915. In addition to original work, annual reviews of the literature relating to entomology are to occupy a large space in this publication. 823 - Insects Pests of Plants Cultivated in European Russia, in 1914 (i).— kul.\gin n. in Il.wihciniu M()ciii)iir/,a^i) •)HVi().\iof Brassica Rapa oleifera ; (5) Elateridae were reported at Petrngrad, Novgorod, Pskov, Viatka, Perm and in Livonia ; Agriotes lineatus E. caused extensive damage INJURIOUS INSECTS : GENERAL 1049 to Spring cereals, at Moscow ; at Kaluga the followiDg specie;^ were observed : Limonms aeruginosus Oliv. ; Agriotus lineatus I,. ; A. sputatov L. and, to a less extent. A. ohsctints L. and Athous niger 1,. ; at Orel together with A. segetis, a few specimens of Athous niger L. were recorded ; Elateridae were reported at Tula and Riazan ; at Kharkov, Agriotes sp. ( ? ) caused injury to wheat (i()0 acres were resown) and to cabbages ; at Kiev, beets were at- tacked b}^ the adult .4. lineatus ; in Podolia, by Athous, Limonius, Mela- lotus and A. lineatus ; at Ekaterinoslav, A. lineatus and A. niger caused great havoc to wheat and maize ; at Astrakhan, A. /mea/zj.s produced wide injury to rye (in April), and to different kinds of melons (May and June); in Bes- sarabia, A. tisiulatuj was found on the ears of barley; (6) Omophlus leptu- roides Fabr.), in Bessarabia, devoured young heads of rye; (7) Podosta ni- grita F. was observed in fairly large numbers on the ears of wheat at Ekate- rinoslav, its injurious action in relation to grain crops however is not yet quite clear ; in the government of Kuban, it caused injury to beet ; at »Stav- ropol it was found in quantities in grain fields, on Bassica Rapa oleifera and other plants ; (8) Opatrum sabulosum I,., at Kiev, Astrakhan and Khar- kov, caused injury to peas, melons, water-melons, cucumbers and young wheat plants ; (9) Gonocephaliim pusillmn Fabr.. at Astrakhan, attacked plots sown with wheat ; (10) Crioceris merdigera L. , at Kiev, attacked asparagus and onions ; (11) Lema melanopa L- caused injury to grain crops at Khar- kov, Kiev, Stavropol, in Bessarabia and the Crimea; (12) Choetocnemahor- tensis Geoffr, in larval form, was found in the stalk of bsrle)' at Kiev ; (13) Choetocnema sp. was reported at Stavropol ; (14) Psylliodes attenuatus Koch caused injury to young hemp plants at Orel and in Bessarabia ; (15) Haltica euphorhiae Fabr. was observed at Ekaterinoslav; (16) H. oleracea L. , at Riazan, caused great damage to lucerne; (17) Cassida nehulosa L-, at Kiev, Kharkov and Ekaterinoslav caused damage to the beet ; it was also found on maize at Ekaterinoslav; (18) Laria (Bruchus) pisi I,., at Riazan, caused great injury to newly sown peas ; it was also met with at Ekateri- noslav ; (ig) Otiorrhynchus ligustici L- at Tchernigov, in the larval stage, in- jured roots of clover; at Kharkov it attacked clover and lucerne ; at Kher- son, the roots of lucerne ; at Kiev, the adults preferred the leaves of the peas to those of the beet ; at Stavropol this species was found on the leaves and roots of lucerne ; (20) Sitones lineata ly., at Orel, Riazan and Kharkov, on several pulses ; also found at Stavropol ; (21) Baris chloris Fabr. great- ly injured (up to 80 "„) kohlrabi, the larvae devouring the whole of the stems; rarely met with on the roots ; at Kharkov the insect caused serious injur\ to cabbages; (22) Apion sp. attacked clover, at Orel; and was found through- out Riazan; at Tula the number of larvae which usually feed on clover had considerably diminished, in 1914 according to Sapozko, the ex- cessive drought retarding, development and flowering cf the clover, and con- sequently a part of the generation of the clover weevil was displaced in its life cycle ; according to Stcherbakov's data obtained at the agricultural experiment Station of Chatilov (government of Tula), Apion is harmless agriculturally, and cannot be deemed to have any adverse influence on the production of clo\rer seed ; at Tchernigov the weevil was found on a 1050 INJURIOUS INSECTS : GENERAL clover field, causing a continiKuis falling off in production; (23) A.pomonac Fabr. was found at Kharkov in small quantities on peas and vetches (with Sitones Jineatus); (24) .4. craccae L., at Riazan, was observed on vetches and oats ; (25) Melolontha melolontha L- was noted at Orel, Kuorsk, Kharkov and Ekaterinoslav ; (26) Anisoplia austriaca Herbst caused great injury at Kharkov, Ekaterinoslav and Kherson ; it was observed at Stavropol and in Bessarabia ; {zy) A. crucifera Herbst, at Kaluga, caused little harm ; at Riazan, more extensive damage; (28) A. segetum Herbst appeared in hosts dur- ing the flowering of the rye but occasioned no injury ; the}- were also observed at Stavropol ; (29) A. cyarthigera vScop. was recorded at Stavropol; (30) A. agnota and A. fen aria were abundant in Astrakhan at the time of earing of the wheat and rye ; (31) Epicometis hirta Pod. and Oxythyrea funesta Pod. in Bessarabia, devoured the ears of rye, and 0. funesta the flowers of wheat ; (32) Pentodon idiota Herbst, at Ekaterinoslav, Kherson and in Bessarabia, caused injury to maize ; at Kiev, it was found in a ditch surrounding a beet field. II) Lepidoptera — (i) Ochsencheimeria taurella Schiff. caused ex- tensive damage at Orel, Riazan and Kaluga; (2) Talis quercella Schiff., destroyed several hundred acres of pasture in April and May at Astrakhan; (3) Phlycfaenodes stidicalis L- was observed in small numbers at Riazan on the grass, and in an oak forest ; damage not noted ; a few at Kharkov, in- juring beets in some localities ; also a few at Kiev ; at Ekaterinoslav the lar- vae injured maize ; fewer in Bessarabia than in 1912 and 1913, and observ- ed on lucerne ; hardl}' noticed in the Crimea ; at Kherson (experimental field) the lucerne was completely destroyed, and rye half destroyed ; at Ekaterinoslav, the first generation larvae injured the beet sowings ; a normal number also seen at Astrakhan ; (4) Pyrausfa nubilalis Hb., caused great damage at Riazan to hemp, which was completely destroyed in some loca- lities ; injury noted at Kiev to maize, millet, and once to mustard ; appa- rently the larvae also injure the sunflower ; in Bessarabia, in the government of Tchernomorsk, and at Ekaterinoslav, this insect did extensive damage to maize ; at Ekaterinoslav, in some localities, the injur}' destroyed the entire crop; (5) Acronyda rumicis L., at Kiev, observed in the larval form en the leaves of the ornamental sunflower, the raspberry bush and Rumex con- fertus Willd. ; also found on maize and en vine lea\ es ; (6) Phisia gamma L. was noted at Kiev, adult in spring wheat sowings, and larvae in beet fields ; also reported at Astrakhan and in Bessarabia ; (7) Trachea 'Hadena) ha- silima Tb. observed at Orel, at Riazan (on rye ears and in grain) ; likewise at Kaluga and Ekaterinoslav, where it occurred widely (the yoimg larvae found on oats); (8) Hydroecia niditans Bkh., in considerable quantities at Tver.^Tula, Orel, Riazan and Kaluga; (9) Oria {Tapinostola) musculosa Hb. at Ekaterinoslav was one of the insects causing most havoc to grain crops; in 1913, 376,560 acres were attacked; in 1914 the insect was found nearly as plentifully as in the previous year, but involving a larger area : of 754 625 acres of spring cereals, 200 560 were damaged or destroyed, i. e. about 25 % ; M. ViTKOV.SKij gives the following features observed in the' growth of the insect: ia) early emergence of the larva (first injuries noted 4th April); INJURIOUS INSECTS : GENERAL IO5I (b) variations in the date of emergence of larvae (iith May in the Pa-vlo- grad district, the smallest larvae were observable and also these ready to accomplish the next phase of development); {c) larva passing into the open in spite of heat ; the death of the insect observed to be dne to parasitic liy- menoptera and an unknown cause ; the same worker observed a fresh kind of damage caused by the insect : on examining the field attacked one is struck by the completely dried and whitened ears, the grain has not formed, at the upper internode the stalk of the ear is destroyed, on the leaf sheaths the inlet and exit holes of the insect are found ; at Kharkov it injured spring wheats, barley and oats, up to go % of the crop; damage was also observed in the Crimea ; in the Don region the insect injured 2725 acres, 750 acres being completely destro3^ed ; (10) Euxua {Agrotis) tritici L-, at Astrakhan injured spring cereals ; (11) Euxoa {Agrotis) segetum Schiff. observed at Viatka, Perm, Ufa, Vitebsk, Smolensk, Kazan, Tambov, Simbirsk, Tula. Riazan. Kaluga, Orel, Kharkov, Kiev ; damage found on some farms of \'oronej and Poltava, and in Podolia serious damage at Ekaterinoslav, vSamara and Saratov ; the insect observed at Astrakhan and in Bessarabia ; (12) Feltia [Agrotis) exclamationis Schiff. noted at Riazan; (13) E. segetum and E. exclamationis are two competing species as regards time of flight, and one preys on the other ; at Tula the number of E. exclamationis almost exceeded that of E. segetum ; (14) Episilia {Agrotis) simulans Hufn. noted at Kiev on rye and on beet leaves ; the larvae destroy the stalk almost level with the ground, the plant then falls and is completely devoured. III) Hymexoptera. — (i) Cephus pigmaeus L. : a small number ob- served at Ria.ran ; also noted at Orel, Ekaterinoslav, in considerable quanti- ties ; at Kherson it occurred everv^where in the same amount as in previous years ; elso noted at Stavropol ; (2) Athalia spinorum Fabr. at Kiev, accord ing to the observations of V. M. Kostinskij, oviposited on the edge of hemp leaves ; at Kharkov, Kherson and Astrakhan it damaged hemp ard turnips ; (3) Bruchofagus gibhus Boh., at Orel., caused much damage to seed clover. IV) DiPTERA. — (i) Hylemyia {Leptohylemvia) coarctata Fall., at Orel, occasioned less injury than in IQ13 ; at Kiev the damage to the sowings of • spring wheat was 10 % ; the rye sowings suffered 12.5 to 15 %; (2) Agromyza florum Fabr. noted among injurious insects at Kiev ; {3) Oscinella frit L,., observed at Ufa, Orenburg, Smolensk, Moscom' and in Livonia ; at Orel, it wrought much havoc to spring grain crop sowings ; the early sowings (25th Jul}^) of rye and barley suffered more than the late (17th August) ; traces of damage were found at Riazan ; at the agricultural experimental Station of Chatilov (province of Tula) Stcherbakov observed injury occa- sioned by this dipteron to maize, the damage being of the typical character of that occasioned to grain crops ; the maize plant was not destroyed, it had a very strong stalk and in this way proved its capacity to produce a good cob; at Kiev, the insect caused injury to spring cereals; in some local- ities, in April, the injury wa 44 ''o of ^he sowings ; this dipteron did da- mage at Ekaterinoslav ; inconsiderable injury was observed at Kherson to oats and barley, and on some farms in Podolia ; (4) Chlorops tacniopiis Meig. was noted at Riazan and Orel ; it seems to be widespread at Ekater- 10^2 IXJIKIOIS l.XSl'XTS : liKXKRAI. inoslav and to attack barlej' by preference; on the nth June Vitkowskij observed a new injury caused by the insect: it attacks the growing bud, upward growth is checked, the plant swells abnormally and bev.omes a monstrosity, the height of these monstrosities does not exceed 6 inches while the neighbouring plants attain 2 ft. 3 14 inches and more and have already eared ; the mcnster stalk attains 9 to 12 centimeters in diameter ; (5) Ce- cidomyia destructor Say wfis observed at Perm, Ufa, Riazan, Tula and Eka- terinoslav ; at Orel it injured the spring wheat and rye; was reported on some farms in Podolia and in the Crimea ; (6) Lasioptera cerealis Ivind, found at Orel and Riazan ; in the latter government it was accompanied by Oscinella frit I,- V) Hemiptera. — (i) Aelia acuminata L- and Eurygaster niaura L., occurring very widelj^ at Riazan ; the last named species was observed on rye ears ; the insect was found beneath stacks (40-56 individuals found beneath two stacks in the district of Mikhailovsk); the migration of the insect to the forests began in the middle of July, and the number there had increas- ed from the middle of August ; (2) Aelia acuminata and E . integripea Put. were found on cultivated plants at Stavropol; (3) Eurygaster sp. was record- ed among injurious insects at Orenburg ; (4) Trygonotylus ruficornis Geof. was observed at Riazan and Stavropol ; (5) Adelphocoris lineolatus Goeze, at Kiev, was seen by VasiliEV to feed on the nectar of the flowers and juices of the floral buds of the mallow ; at Ekaterinoslav it devoured lucerne, and at Kherson it was found on the same plant ; at Kuban it was found on beet sow'ings ; it is mentioned among injurious insects at Stavropol ; (6) Macrosi- /)AMWgra«anfl Kirby, at Riazan, where it was found en the leaves of rye, wheat and oats (the aphid sucked the juice from the leaf and the base of the ear) ; on the glumes of oats, the insect produced white spots and caused reduction of the grain ; the attacks were in the proportion of 20 to 25%; at Ekaterinoslav the aphid was found on the leaves and ears of barley ; (7) PentapJiis trivialis Pass, was observed in large quantities on the roots of barley at I\katerinoslav ; it was also reported in the Crimea ; (8) Toxop- tera graminum Rond. ; at Ekaterinoslav, severely attacked barley and oats ; (9) Tetraneura rubra Lich.; was observed at Ekaterinoslav and in the govern- ment of Tchernomorsk ; (10) Brachycolus noxius Mordw. ; presence recor- ded in the Crimea ; damage not so extensive as might have been expected at the beginning of spring, which is to be put down to the strength and uni- formity of growth of the grain crops. VI) Orthoptera. — (i) Pachyiylus migratorius L. ; at Orel a small number were found, and also at Riazan ; at Kharkov, on the 9th July at 10 p. m., the flight of a considerable swarm of these insects was ob- served ; at Ekaterinoslav the insect was noted on maize (with P. donicus If.) ; at Astrakhan locust control was organised in a locality where they co- vered 102 14 acres, the cost was about £ 30 ; the same control was under- taken at Stavropol, Ekaterinodar, Baku and Elisavetpol; (2) CaUiptamus italicus L. caused injury at Sarato\ and Astrakhan ; (3) Locusts (species not identified) : at Orenburg locu.st control was organised from 15th May INJURIOT'S IXSr.CTS : GI.NI'RAI, IO53 till the beginning of July, the cost exceeding £ 400 ; the same was done at Baku, Elisavetpol, Ekaterinodar and in the region of Tourgajsk. VII) Thysaxoptkra. — (i) Antlioihrips acuhatiis Fabr. was met with very frequently on rye ears at Kaluga ; (2) Haplothrips trifici Kurd, and Steiiothrips graminitm Usef. were observed in considerable quantities ; the former sucked the glumes and grain of rj'-e, the latter was found on oats and seemed to lead to whitening of the ears; in June and July H. tritici was found in quantities on the inflorescences of red clover (it was less fre- quent on white clover) ; at Tchernigov, it was observed that the Thysa- noptera had been carried, away from the land where previously found, through the agency of red clover roots ; at Ekattrinoslav the}' occurred very widely and attacked wheat and oats (in the latter case, H. tritici); at Astra- klian these Th) sanoptera caused injury to wheat, and were found very ex- tensively on this crop in Bessarabia. VIII) Insects attacking special crops. — (A) Beetroot — (1) Bot/iynoderes pitnctiventris Germ., at Kiev, in 1014, as in the previous year, it was found in smaller numbers, so that no control measures were organised on many farms ; at Kharkov, Tchernigov, Ekaterinoslav and Ekaterinodar, it caiised injury ; (2) Lixiis ascanii L. : at Ekaterinodar, M. VasiliEV noted its eggs, yellow in colour, on the stalks oi Ainavmiihus blitum E- with which a beet field was severely infested ; (3) Psalidium maxilosmn Eabr. observed at Ekaterinoslav ; (4) Tynamecus palliatus F. noted at Kiev ; (5) Liparus coronaius Goeze found on May 14 in the small ditches surrounding land under beet, on the 17th Ma}^ it was observed that the eggs had been laid in the soil ; on the 29th May some eggs were found near the roots of a car- rot ; on the 8th June the eggs were found laid on carrot roots ; at the end of June larvae appeared, and on the ist September they returned into the ground; the adults devoured the leaves of the beet (beginning with the pa- renchyma of the midrib) and the carrot (eating transversely) ; (6) Cassi- dida nohilis L. noted at Kiev ; (7) Castroidea polygoni L- noted at Kiev ; (8) Thanofophitus siriuatus E- at Kiev ; the larvae injured the crops of beet and CJienopodium album ; in the laboratory of the agricultural Sta- tion of Smielna, the adults readily eat the leaves of the beet ; (g) Aphis euvonymi rmnicis papaveris F., at Kiev ; the insect was found on the upper and under surface cf beet leaves ; viburnum and jasmine are centres of propagation of this aphid on the beet; VasiliEV fcimd females of this insect en the roots of beets left on the field after the crop ; (10) Macrosiplmm cir- cumfednm Buskton at Kiev, found on the beet; (11) Lygus praiensish. appears to winter in the adult form ; Vasiliev found this insect, in 1913, on the upper part of the root stock of rotted beets which had lain on the field through the winter ; on the 18th July 1914, eggs were found on a fen- nel stalk ; (12) Piesma capitata Wolff. : at Kiev, this insect had laid its eggs on the lower part of beet leaves in spring ard summer ; there are 2 genera- tions and the adults of the second hibernate ; on the 3rd August Vasiukv observed the insect feeding on the nectar cf the mignonette ; (13) Bibio honulamis E. and Bibio marci E. at Kiev, the former in small numbers, but 1054 iN-juRious insects: genekai, the latter in considerable quantities in April ; at Astrakhan both species appeared, and they were iiuniernns throughout the government. Among other insects injuring the beet, there were also observed, at Ekaterinodar, the " earth fleas " {HaUicini) and the larvae of the cock- chafer. Other insect pe.sts of the beet are indicated above. (B) Mustard. — At Astrakhan, Phiiella cruciferarum Zell. in- jured this plant in the region of Jimkursk ; in June, about 2750 acres were destroyed ; the presence was also observed of: Pieris daplidice'L,.,P. rapae ly., Colaphiis sophiae vSchall., Phyllotrefa cruci ferae Goeze, Athalia spinarum Fabr., {Pyrausta nubials, at Kiev, was referred to above). A list of 32 publications accompanies the paper. 824 - Dlaspids Collected in Southern Italian Somaliland — malenotti ettore in Redia, Vol. IX, Part 2, pp. 321-358, PI. VIII-X. Florence, March 24, 1916. Description of the diaspids gathered in 1913 by the Steianini-Paoli Scientific Mission, in Southern ItaHan Somaliland : (i) Aspidiotus {Evasp.) destructor Sign. (= A. transparens Green, .4. translucens Ckll.), on leaves of Cocos nncifera, at Merca, and on leaves, of Xylocarptts obovatiis near the mouth of the Diouba, June 1913; (2) A. (Evasp.) cyanophylli Sign., on leaves of M anihot Glaziovii at Djelib on the Djouba, June IQ13; (3) A. [Evasp.) orientalis Newst. {= A. osbeckiae Green, Chrysomphalus pedroniformis Ckll.) on branches and fruits of Calotropis procera and on fruits of Solanum arundo, at Moukdicha, May 1913; (4) Chry- somphalus rossi (Mask.) Ckll. var. f errand ii Malen. u. var., on leaves of Garcinia somalensis, November 1913, at lyough, where the host goes by the name of " Ferrandi tree " ; (5) C. Piceus Malen. n. sp. ver\^ numerous on leaves of Cassine Schweinfurthiana (?), called by the natives " Calangcal ", at Aden Caboba, October 1913 ; {6) Pseudaonidia quadriareolata Malen. n. sp., on the bark of Acacia Asak at Allengo, September 1913: (7) P. articu- lata (Morg.) ( = Selenaspidus articulatus Morg.), on leaves of Xylocarpus ohovatus at Djumbo, near the mouth of the Djouba, and on leaves of Salvador a persica, June 1913 ; (8) Hemiherlesia fissidens (Ldgr.) var. constricta Malen, n. var., on leaves of Phizophora mucronata at Djumbo, near the mouth of the Djouba, 13th June 1913, and on leaves of Hyphaene pyrifera Beccari with Chionaspis pseudo-nivea Malen, n. sp. on the shore of El. vSai, 21st June 1913 ; (9) Parlatoria [Webster iella) blanchardi (Targ.) on date palms, at Merca, 6th June 1913 ; (10) Di- naspis reticulata Malen. n. sp.,on iQ^cvesoiDobera Macaliisoi at Ouam.batti, November 1913 and on both leaf faces of an undetermined member cf the Capparidaceae, at Mailable, 28th July T913 ; (11) D. reticulata var. minor Malen. n. var., on both leaf faces of Balanites somalensis near Matagassile, 24th September 1913 ; (12) D. berlesei Malen. n. sp., on the under surface of the leaf of a member of the Capparidaceae, perhaps of the genus Cadaba, at Biobahal, on the Diouba, 26th September 1913 ; {13) Chionaspis tisamba- rica lydgr., on the iinder surface of the leaves of Xylocarpits obovatus at the mouth of the Djoiiba, vSeptember 1913; (14) C. elongata Green, en the under surface of the leeves of Cassine Holstii, near Djcumbo, 12th Jime 1913 ; (15) C. pseudo-nivea Malen. n. sp. on leaves of HypJuie'>w pyrifera, with a MEANS OF PRKVKNTION AND CONTROL IO55 number of individuals of Hemiberlesia fissidens (Ldgr.) var. constricta Ma- len., on the shore of El Sai. 21st June 1913 ; (t6) C. paolii Malen. n. sp., on the leaves of Mariscus chactophyllus at Bour-Meldac, 23rd July 1913 ; (17) Lepidosaphes [Coc corny til us) somalensis Malen. n. sp., on the trunk bark of Acacia Asak with Pseudaonidia (^^af/rmyfo/rt^rt Malen., at Allengo, Sep- tember 1 91 3. 825 - Some Miscellaneous Economic Insects found in New Jersey. — weis.s harry b^ in The Canadian Entomologist, Vol. Xlylll, No. 4, pp. i.;i-i43. I,uii(lun, April 1916. Callopistriafloridensis Guen. ("Florida fern-cutworm"). — This insect, a lepidopteron already recorded by the Author as doing considerable damage to ferns in greenhouses, was found to be effectively controlled by spraying with fresh pyrethrum, one ounce to one gallon of water, plus one half ounce of soap. Also applied with a bellows with similar results. Phytomyza cht ysanthemi Kowarz ("Chrysanthemum leaf miner" or "mar- guerite fly"). - — This insect does considerable damage to chrysanthemums in various greenhouses in northern New Jersey. The larvae mine the leaves. Nicotine solutions are effective against this insect, in place of the more or less unsatisfactory method of picking oft" and destroying infested leaves. Oberea tripunctata Svederus (" dogwood twdg-girdler"). — This coleop- teron causes withering of the leaves of Cornus florida at the tip of the infested shoot. It is widely distributed in New Jersey, but as a rule does not occur in sufficient numbers to do any considerable damage. Hemichionaspis aspidistrae Sign. — In many fern houses in New Jer- sey this scale insect is a dangerous pest. It is also continually introduced on Aspidistra plants imported from Belgium. There is no satisfactory re- medy, and infested leaves are usually pulled off and destroyed during re- potting or turning over the stock. Isisoma orchidearum Westw. ("Cattleya fly"). — ^This Chalcid, known as the Cattleya fly, deposits one or more eggs in the buds of Cattleya, and de- velopment and pupation take place inside. The pest is found in practic- ally all orchid houses of New Jersey where Cattleya species are grown, and is also continually introduced in orchids imported from South America. Fumigation with nicotine extracts is recommended to kill the adults. AphropJiora parallela Say and Cecidomyia resim'cola O. S. — Observed on pine trees in nurseries, but no injuries to the trees could be detected. Corythiica arcuata Say. This lace bug is found on the leaves of oaks and other trees in various parts of New Jerse}'. 826 - Dr'plogaster labiata n. sp. and D. aerivora n. sp., Nematode Parasites me.ws of Saperda tridentata and Leucotermes lucifugus, in Kansas. — >Ier- qf prevention RlLj.H.and 1-CRD A. I,, in /(»((r;«j/ ri/ .4-)/(H/7»;p. 1 15-127, ..vnd CONTROL Fig. 1-3. Washingtfin L>. C, April 17, kjK). A description of the life cycle and habits of two new nematodes Diplo- gaster labiata and D. aerivora, found as parasites of Saperda tridentata Oliv. ("elm borer") and of the white ant Leucotermes lucifugus Rossi. D. labiata lives in the digestive canal of Saperda. The numbers pre- sent therein are so large that the walls of the intestine are broken, the abdo- minal cavity is invaded, and the death of the insect caused. i05b Mi'.Axs oi' i'K):\i;ntiox and coxtroi. The individuals of /). acrivora live as parasites in the cephalic region of Leiu'otcymcs ; they are more nnnieroiis in the neighbonrhood of the month parts. Their nnmber ranges from i to 75 per insect. Experiments undertaken in order to ascertain whether the nematodes can be introduced into the body of the Leucotermes and produce the para- sitic affection artificially gave positive results. White ants brought into contact with cultures of nematodes in wet soil were infected and died in 12 days. 827 - The Efficacy of Aphelinus silvestrii in Control of Chrysomphalus dictyospermi, in Sicily. — De (iRECORIO a. in Xunn Animli di Agricnltiirii sici- liana, \'lh j'car, Vllh v'icrics, Part I, pp. 18-19. Palermo, January -March 1916. In confirmation of his previous observations (i) the writer reports that in the neighbourhood of Palermo he observed so considerable an increase of Aphelinus silvestrii that the latter almost completelv destroyed the fa- mous citrus scale insect Chrysomphalus dictyospermi for which he proposed the new name of Aspidiotus agrnmiiicola. This scale insect has not yet entire- ly disappeared, but the hymenopteron, its natural enemy, has reduced it so such an extent that it no longer causes injury to the plants or their fruits. 828 - Efficacy of Various Arsenical Preparations in Control of Insect Pests. - ]5.\ttail j in Le Progris ap'icole d viticolc, 33rd j'ear, No. 19; pp. 448-452. Montpellier, Maj' 7, 1916. The arsenic salts most in use as insecticides are : sodium arsenate, calcium arsenate, lead arsenate, copper arsenite, iron arsenate and copper arsenate. Their toxic action is in proportion to their content of arsenic. We have therefore : Calcium arsenate 37.9 "„ of arsenic I^ead " 16.7 " " Anhydrous sodium arsenate 36.0 " " Copper arsenite 34.5 " " Iron arsenate 33.6 " " Copper " 32.0 " This scale of values, however, is slightly modified in practice for sev- eral reasons, the chief of which are : the solubility of the arsenic salt, the formation of salts which act as though they were impurities and lower the percentage of arsenic in the compound, the presence of chlorides, and the addition of Bordeaux mixture for the purpose of controlling mildew at the same time. Sodium arsenate is the most soluble, but its action is transitory, and it may seriously burn the green parts of the plants as soon as the dose of I per 1000 is exceeded ; it is therefore only used in the preparationof the other arsenical compounds. Calciitm arsenate is the richest in ar.senic and is also the most effec- (1) See B. April 1015, N'o. r s i . {Rd). MEAXS OF PREVENTION AND CONTROL 1057 tive in application. It is obtained by the reaction of milk of lime on a solution of sodium arsenate, viz : 416 gm [2X03 As04] + 222 g [3Ca (OH)2] = 398 g [Ca^ { AsOi)^] -f 24og [6NaOH]. The result is 398 grams of arsenate of calcium and 240 grams of soda or 638 gr. of substances containing in all 150 gr. of arsenic, or 23.5 %. The presence of the soda, which remains adhering to the leaves after evaporation, therefore reduces the toxic value of the compound 38 % m For the rest, a large proportion of the soda ma}'- be allowed to settle at the time of preparation, and if care is taken to use an sodium arsenate absolutely free from chlorides, the calcium arsenate will be superior to all other preparations of arsenic. The most suitable proportions are : 500 gr. of sodium arsenate and 200 gr. of fat lime or 380 gr. of calcium hydrate. In arsenate of lead the toxic property of the arsenic is added to that of the lead, so that its insecticidal action is in no wa}^ inferior to that of arsen- ate of calcium, but it is much dearer and much more difficult to prepare. It is obtained b}^ allowing a solution of lead acetate to react on sodium arsenate. The percentage of arsenic in the product is 10 %. The copper arsenite is obtained by allowing trisodium arsenite to react on a solution of copper sulphate ; the content of arsenic in the product is 17.4 %. Finally, iron arsenate and copper arsenate are obtained by causing sodium arsenate to act on a solution of iron sulphate or sulphate of copper; the percentage of arsenic in the product is 17.2 and 16.9 respectively. In spite of the impurities which form in the preparation of the mixtures, cal- cium arsenate is therefore much more active in proiDortion than all the other preparations of arsenic. The presence of chlorides weakens the properties of the insecticides. These chlorides may very well be contained no'' only in the arsenate of so- dium, but also in considerable quantities in water, especially in well water (2.5 to 3 gr. per litre). It is therefore preferable to use running water as far as possible. To the arsenical preparation Bordeaux mixture is often added, reduc- ing its toxic action. In a i % mixture the weight of the precipitated hydrate of copper oxide is 385 grams per hectolitre; on the other hand, the arsenical mixture obtained with milk of lime and separated from the sodium water contains 398 gr. of arsenical precipitate with a content of arsenic of 37.9 % (150 gr.). By mixing the two precipitates, a total weight is obtained of 783 gr. with only 19 per cent of arsenic. 829 - The Efficacy of Hot Water Treatment against *' Cochylis and " Eudemis,,. — topi Mario in Rendiconti dellc sedutc dclla Reale A ccademia dei Lined, Classe di Scienze fisiche, matematiche e natiirali, 5th Series, Vol. XXV, iPt Half Year, Part 7, pp. 524-528. Rome, April 2, 1916. M. Semichon, who proposed this treatment, declared it effective against the eggs and larvae of Conchylis ambiguella, Polychrosis boirana and Sparga- 1058 INSECTS ETC. IXJIRIOXts TO \ARIOUS CROPS nothis pilleriana ; against aphids, fungi with external mycelium (oidium) and the external fructifications of the fungi. The writer's experience was confined to the summer generation of CoiicJiylis a.nd Poly- chrosis, especially their eggs. Experiments were carried out both in the fields and the laboratory, chiefly with water at S^^-^b^C. The results ob- tained lead to the conclusion that the proposed sprayings with hot water only, at such a temperature that it cannot injure the plant (i) are almost entirely ineffective against the eggs of Polychrosis and Conchylis. The ■ effectiveness against the larva is very doubtful. In any case they could hardly be reached, being sheltered in the floral buds or even inside the grapes. Only an immersion for lo minutes in water at 65*' C. (probably even only at 55*^), is found sufficient to sterilise the eggs. It does not appear possible to make any practical application of this result. 830 -Bridge Grafting for saving Fruit Trees with Injuries due to Animals or Mechani- cal Causes. — Sw- A'o. 758 of this Bulletin. 831 - Triaenodes bicolor and Hydrocampa nymphaeata in the Rice Fields of the Province of Milan, Italy. — Supino F. in RaiMconti del Reale Istituto Lombardc di Scicnzc e Lcttcrc, Series II, Vol. XI^IX, Parts II-III, pp. 108-114. Milan, 1916. The study carried out in the rice fields of the environs of Milan in rela- tion to the aquatic larvae which, according to farmers, caused more or less injury to rice, proved the existence of three different insects : Stratiomys chamaleon L., an absolutely harmless dipteron, and two injurious species, Tnaenodes bicolor Curt, and Hydrocampa [Nymphula) nymphaeata L- Triaenodes bicolor (order Neuroptera, sub-order Trichoptera, family lyCptoceridae) . — The larva of this insect cuts the leaves of aquatic plants for use as a sheath or cover and in the rice fields uses the rice leaves for that purpose, partly destroying them. Hydrocampa [Nymphula) nymphaeata (order Lepidoptera, family Py- ralidae, sub-family Hydrocampinae [Nymphulinae]). — This is one of the rare lepidoptera the larvae of which live in water; this larva also cuts the leaves to make a sheath for itself ; but what is more important and renders it more injurious than that of the Triaenodes, is that it attacks not only the rice leaves, but also the young plants, feeding on them. For control, it is advised to put carp in the rice field. They destroy a large number of the larvae, as was ascertained several times with certainty. 832 - Tychius quinquepunctatus, a Coleopterous Pest of Beans in Apulia, Italy. — G. Grandi, in Z?o//t'//mo del Laboratorio di Zoologia generale ed axmria della R. Scuola superiore d'A'^ricnlHira in Portici, Vol. X, pp. 103-119, Fig. 1-6. Porticd, March 18, 1916. In April 191 5, there was an extensive invasion of Tychius quinque- punctatus L-, in the bean fields of the commune of Ruvo di Puglia. The advdts feed on the parenchyma of the soft leaves and young pods of the bean. Mating occurs in the first half of April, and the females oviposit in a hole or tunnel previously bored with their rostra in the wall of the pod. As soon (i) Tests have shown that on thoroughly wet leaves with water at ) S. marginicollus and 5. scrdidus Horn : the latter is the most effec- tive species of Scvmmus in controlling Pseudococcns ; 7) Chrvsoplatvcerous spkndens How. , introduced from the Philippines into the t ounty of vSan Diego and at present spread throughout Southern California. Fumigation with hydrocj^anic acid, and applications of various anti- fungus preparations, may give good results, but the best have been obtained by simple jets of water under high pressure at the rate of 44 to 66 gallons of water per plant. 836 -The Woolly Whitefly (/I /ewro^Ar/xu5 Howard/) in Florida Citrus Planta- tions. — Watson J. R. in University o> Florida, A'^rituHural Experiment Station, I-iulk-lin Xo. 126, pp. 81-10.2. Tallahassee, Fla., 1013. Akitrothrixus howardi Ouaintance, which was very probably import- ed from Cuba, was discovered for the fiist time in Florida in the neigh- bourhood of Tampa, in the autumn of 1909. In 1914 it had already reached the counties of Hillsborough, Pinellas, Manatee, Polk and De Soto, and will soon end in becoming common in all the citius plantations of Florida. Akicrothrixus causes damage in three ways to the plants attacked : t) removal of juice from the tissues, causing the withering of the plant ; 2) secretion of a honeydew which covers the leaves and fruits and forms a good medium for the growth of Meliola Camelliae and other fungi hin- dering the functions of the leaves and rendering washing of the fruit necess- ary ; 3) the colonies of Akurothrixus are a centre of attraction for the " purple scale " {Lepidosaphes bcckii) so injurious to citrus plants. IXSFCTS ETC. INJURIOUS TO VARIOUS CROPS I063 Among natural enemies, •■ red fmigvis " [Ascheisoiiia Aleyrodis Webber) and " brown fungus" [Aegerita Webber i Fawcett) grow badly on the Alcn- rothrixus and certainly cannot prevent its spread. The writei found on some dead larvae a Cladospotium (in the proportion of 80 %) which he considers to-be the direct cause of their death, although he was not able to verify his hypothesis by inoculating living larvae with pure cultures. The most effective and active natuia] enemy, however, is vmdoubtedly a small hymenopteron [Erctmocems haldemani) the female of which lays its eggs in the body of the laivae or pupae of Aleiirothrixiiy.. The latter are then killed by the larvae hatching out of the eggs in their bodies. As regards artificial means of control, good results are obtained by ap- plying oily mixtures in the early days of March, the first half of June, about the middle of August and the beginning of November, when the parasites are in their early stages of development and more sensitive to insecticidal action. The following formula is ad\'ised: to 8 lbs. whale oil soap add 2 galls, of fine paraffin oil, stirring vigorously all the while so that the whole is well emulsified. Add i gall, of water to the emulsion, stirring as before. Dilute emulsion to make 200 galls, of spray solution. 837 - Jcerya purchasi in Florida, United States. — nwwsox i. r. in University of Florida, Agricultural Experiment Station, Report u r nji), p. 55. 'rallahassee, Fla., 1916. Icerva purchasi has continued to spread with continually greater rap- idity. From August 191 3 to March 1914, it was discovered in the follow- ing localities : St. Cloud, Key West, Odessa (Pasco County), Terra Ceia Island, Palmetto, Leesburg, Tavares, Ashton and Narcoosee. The damage has been very serious, especially at Key W'est, where Ice- rya even attacks Burscra Simaruba (gumbo-limbo). This plant must be added to the list of hosts of this scale insect. S38 - Bombyx Pini, a Spanish Pest of Pine (i). — Mir.\ jenaro in Kevista de Monies, Xl,th year, No. '140, pp. luj-^oj, Madrid, March 13, 1916. Reference is made to the extensive damage caused by Liparis proces- sionea and Bombyx pini in the pine forests of the " Dehesa de la Albufera " ; the particulars given chiefly concern the latter insect. Many trees entirely defoliated perished rapidl}*, especially in hot and moist regions where transpiration is more intense. The control of the insects was undertaken by means of active and well organised measures, owing to which, by the resort to every available means, an enormous quantit}' of adults and larvae were destroyed, thus saving a considerable number of pines from certain destruction. The following were the most effective means used : i) Direct control by removal and destruction of the nests of the insects ; hanging out white cloths at night, covered with a sticky substance and strongly illuminated; the adults, attracted by the light, are caught on the cloth ; (i) See al?o li. Jan. i()i6. No. i,',fi. (Id.) 1064 INSECTS ETC. INJURIOI'S TO VARIOUS CROPS 2) Spraying on the youngest, which are the easiest to get at, arsenate of sodium and quicklime, which safeguards the plants against further at- tacks (arsenate of sodium, 10.3 to 12.2 oz ; quicklime, 2.2 lbs ; water 22 galls.) ; 3) Coating the pine trunks over a more or less extensive area with a sticky pitch substance. The larvae coming down from the tree and those climbing up in search of food stop in front of the coated belt and can easily be destroyed. This is a very practical and easy method of control. 839 - Lyda hypotrophica, a Hymenopterous Pest of Epicea in the Forests of Roggenburg, Germany. — Parts in Zeitschrift fur ani^i'wandti' EntomoloL^tc, Vol. 3, Xo. i, pp. 75-96. Berlin, March lyiC. A very detailed description is given of the occurrence of Lyda hypo- trophica Htg. (= Cephaleia abietis L'.) in the forest of Roggenburg (vSuabia) and the damage it has occasioned of recent years. These data are based on observations made in the Royal' Forest District of Breitenthal, but they are so characteristic that they may be considered as being likewise typical for the whole of Suabia. In August 1911, inastand of epicea 119 years old, in the .southeast part of the said f 01 est, many trees were remarked with their tops and side bran- ches entirely stripped cf needles. This fact was at first put down to the excessively dry weather in that year, but on felling S'ome trees later, it was found to be caused by injury due to Lyda hypotrophica. In the month of vSeptember following, all the stands attacked where the insect was likely to be sheltered were studied, and the quantity of larvae contained in the soil was determined in 323 plots of i square metre each distributed over different points. It was found, in accordance with the literature of the subject, that stands of 60 to 120 years had suffered most, both with regard to infested area and number of larvae. The chief object of these experiments was to determine how widespread was the occurrence of the insect in the forest. As however the majority of the larvae generally live in that part of the soil which is shaded bj' the largest trees, the latter were almost exclusively used for the experiments. The result is that this method only supplies maximum figures as to the pre- sence of the larvae. \Vhen in 1912 the Writer took over the management of the forest dis- trict of Breitenthal, he hastened to obtain average figures as to the presence of larvae in the soil. He not only selected the plots in all parts of the forest, but he more than trebled their number. This was the more necessar}*, inasmuch as the first experiments had exhibited great variations in the num- ber of larvae, even per unit of shaded area. There had been found in one district 2083 larvae per square metre of shaded area, while in another the number was only 480. These experiments have shown that no stand throughout the total extent of the Royal forest district comprising 5683 acres was free from larvae, independently of the age of the trees. One stand alone showed an increase in the average number as compared with 191 1 ; generally this num- INSECTS ETC. INJURIOUS TO VARIOUS CROPS IO65 ber in the different districts was below that of 191 1. The reduction was at first put down to exceptional circumstances. In order to secure exact data, the experiments were continued in the spring of 1913, on the same number of plots as in 1912. The number of larvae had again diminished. The results obtained in the autvimn of 1911. in March and April 1912, and in March 1913 for all the stands showing 200 or more larvae on the area shaded by one tree were compared with each other. It was found that taking as a basis the number of larvae found in 1911 = 100, this number had fallen off 19.5% for the spring of 1912 and 47.5% for the spring of 191 3. From this it is evident that the number of larvae decreased in the course of the year observed by the Writer. Control measures were only undertaken in 1913 ; therefore the reduc- tion was due to natural factors. Lang has shown that in the forests of Upper Ffanconia, the larvae of Raphidia ophiopsis can attack the eggs and young larvae of Lvda. Yet the reduction in the number of Lyda could not be put down to this enemy, as it was only rarely found in the excrement of the insect. Traumatic causes, such as injury to the larvae, were also not responsible for the reduction in number. Nor were there more parasites, as it was observed in 1912-1913 that a large number of larvae shvit up for several weeks contained only a small number of ichneumonidae. The Writ- er however, at the end of 1914, found ichneumonidae in some parts of the forest in no less numbers than the Lyda flying in June. The outbreak of war however prevented him from ascertaining whether these ichneumon- idae were connected with the appearance of Lyda. Quite possible there is a connection, as Baer claims to have observed that the ichneumons [Poly- cinetis aethiops) attack the almost full-grown larvae of Lyda. The damage caused by Lyda to the epicea population of the forest of Roggenburg was very great, but not sufficient to bring about the death of the trees. The tops which were bare the spring of 191 2 regained their greenness, and in the following year the damage had to a great extent disap- peared. Only the branches in the lower part and interior of the tree top, where the sunlight is verj^ feeble, retained their bare appearance. Other circumstances, such as the presence of a large number of Bostrichids, were not observed. It was likewise not possible to determine to what extent the growth of the trees had suffered through the influence of the insect. The increase in size depends primarily on the length of time during which the insect carried out its destructive work. It is generally supposed that the larva destroys the needles during June, July and the beginning of August and afterwards shelters in the ground. It is pointed out that this observa- tion is only partly correct. There are some larvae which remain longer on the tree than others. In one case, the Writer observed that certain larvae continued to destroy the needles right up to December. For effective control of Lyda it is essential to know in good time when they will fly. On the occasion of the flight in Upper Franconia it was ob- served that the larva of Lyda undergoes no external change before con- loOb INSIiCTS ETC. INJURIOUS TO VARIOUS CROPS version into a pupa. The skin of the larva only shrank a few days before •it burst. It is pointed out that these changes were never observed by the Author, though he studied thousands of larvae. More precise indications on this question were given by vSchEidter, who found that the larvae which have attained complete maturity show deep black oval spots above the eyes, visible to the naked eye, which represent the eyes of the future pupa ; they are called " Puppenaugen " (pupal eyes ). In the months of April, Maj' and June 1913, on the basis of this character there were examined 11 800 lar- vae from 8 different stands, and the number of those ready for transforma- tion into pupae determined. It was found that this criterion is only partly correct. "Pupal eyes" do not appear only before conversion into pupal form, but as early as the pre\nous autumn or summer. The larvae were found with pupal eyes in the month of August 1913. This fact is important in practice, as by its aid it may be determined in the autumn whether or not there will be a great flight of Lyda in the fol- lowing spring. While observing the evolution of larvae into pupae the writer also ascertained the number of pupae in the above stands. Within a few weeks alone he found great variations in the number, which variations oc- curred at all points at the same time. The cause is probably the w^eather, which exerts an influence on the transformation. A high temperature in April is found to favour the formation of pupae. The perfect insect emerges very early from the soil, the emergence ap- pearing also to be related to the weather. If the weather is rainy and foggy, only a small number of adult insects are found, while on fine days they come out in large numbers. According to the writer mating generally takes place on the ground, on the leaves of Gramineae and very rarely in the crown of the tree. With regard to Lyda control commenced in the forest of Roggenburg, the Author remarks as follows ; glue bands at a height of about 5 feet above the groimd proved very successful at the beginning of flight. The female insects rarely reach the summit flying, most of them climbing up the tree. Tater on, when the weather allowed the insects to emerge in large numbers, and the ovaries of the females were full of eggs, the females tra- versed the band of glue without being captured. This observation is in contradiction with those of many investigators, and thereiore the studies should be continued. The writer also made experiments with fly-papers and obtained excellent results. The high cost of this method of control however prevented him from repeating the experiments on a large scale. In any case they showed that a substance must be used with the proper- ties of the glue used for catching flies if it is desired to obtain good results with glued bands or strips for controlling Lyda. Alfredo Rugceri, gerente responsabile. (c) Publications of the Bureau of Agricultural Intelligence and Plant Diseases . 1. t,E Service de Protection contre les maladies des plantes et les INSECTES NUisiBLES DANS LES DiVERS PAYS' (The Present Organization of the Services for the Control of Plant Diseases and Insect Pests in the Different Countries). (1914, 350 pages, 4to) Fra. L\NURiXG. — 845. Rapid and Simple Determination of the Nitrogen in Liquid Manure by means of a Densimeter. — 846. Experiments on Humogen or Bacterised Peat. h) Speci.\l. Agricultur.\l Botany, Chemistry and Physiology of 1'l.\nts. — 847. Growth of the Root System of Medicago sativa. — 848. The Taxonomic Value and Structure of the Peach Glands, — 849. The Root Nodules aiCeanothus americanamidoi Cycadaceae. — 850. The Enzymes Zymase and Carboxylase in the Storage Organs of the Potato and Sugar Beet . — 851. Investigations into the Part played by the Amylase in Potato Tubers. — 852. Amount of Humic Substance in Decomposing Leaves. — 853. On the Nutrition of Green Plants by means of Organic Substances. — 854. The Influence of Boron on Plant Growth. — 835. The Influence of Strontixmi Salts on Wheat. —856. E.xperimeiits in connection with the Assi- milation of Potassium and Sfxlium Ions by the Sugar Beet . IV CONTENTS Plant Breeding. — 857. " Thule " a Variety of Wheat suited to Central Sweden. AGRICULTURAI, Seeds. — 858. Experiments on the Germination Capacity of Beet Seeds in Bohemia. Cereals. — 859. The Wheats of the State of jWashington U. S. A. — 860. Injuries to Rye and Wheat Grain produced by Threshing and their Consequences. Starch Crops. — • 861. CuUural, Food and Industrial Value of Some Varieties of Potato tested in Hungary. — 862. Influence of Excess of Water in the Soil, during the Second Half of the Summer, on the Formation of Secondary Potato Tubers and their Starch Content. — 863. Comparison between the Effects of Manuring Potatoes with Nitrate of Soda and Sul- phate of Ammonia. Plants yielding Oils, Dyes, T.\nnins etc. — 864. Wild Oil Plant of Para, Brazil. Sugar Crops. — 865. Description of the Varieties of Sugar Cane under Extensive Cultivation. — 866. The Problem of Nitrogenous Manuring of the Sugar Cane in Java (Sulphate of Ammonia or Oil Cakes) ; Results of 10 years of Experiments. Stimulant, Aromatic, Narcotic and Medicinal Crops. — 867. A Pre-fermentation of To- bacco in Special Stacks. — • 868. Investigations into the Combustibility of Tobacco. Fruit Growing. — ^869. Attempted Classification of Pears. — 870. Pyrus caUeryana, an In- teresting Species of Pear Tree. — 871. The Orange Tree in Algeria. — 872. Diospyros virginiana (« Persimmon ») in the United States.. — 873. The Date Palms of Egypt and the Sudan. Vine Growing. — 874. Raisin Production in the United States. Forestry. — 875. Hot water Treatment of Tree Seeds used in Reafforestation and of Poor Ger- minating Capacity. — 876. The Eucalyptus in Algeria. III. — Live Stock and Breeding. * a) General. Hygiene of IvIVESTOCK. — 877. Experiments in Control of I^iv^estock Epidemics by means of Methylene Blue. — 878. Influence of Colour in Horses on the Ciure of Mange. — -879. A Contribution to the Study of the Treatment with Sugar of Surgical Injuries of the Foot in Horses. Feeds and Feeding. — 880. The Importance of Silage in the Economics of IL\chinery and Implements. — 896. Electric Tillage in the Province of I'ia- cenza, Italy. — 897. Mechanical Tillage Experiments with Tractors at York, England, in 1915. — 898. Portable " Vasino " Cereal Drier. — 899. Machine for Gathering Cotton Fnaits without Injury to the Plant. — 900. Milk Can Emptying Machine. — -goi. Review of Patents. Farm Buildings. — 902. New Method of Fire-proofing Wood. — 903. Fencing Poles with Rot -proof Feet. — 904. Device for Protecting Sucking-Pigs. V. — RuRAi, Economics. 905. Discussion as to the Method of Effecting Valuations. — 906. Cost of Production of the Principal Cereals in European Russia. — 907. WTieat -growing on the Share-Farming Sys- tem in the State of Victoria, Australia ; Results obtained in 1915. — 908. Strawberry Farming as an Exclusive Cultivation in the South of the United States. ■ — 909. Cost of Milk Production in the County of Jefferson , State of New York, U. S. A. — 910. Monograph on a Small Dairy Farm in Illinois. VI. — AGRicui,TuRAi, Industries. Industries Depending on Pl.^nt Products. — 911. A Palm Fruit Used for Flavovuring Brandy. — 912. Experiments in connection with Spinning Cotton after Fumigation with Hj-drocyanic Acid. Industries Depending on Animal Products. — 913. Factors Affecting the Fat Content of Whole and Skim Milk. — 914. Metallic Taste in Dairy Industry Products. ^ — 915. The Production of Beef ii: South Africa. AoRictTLTURAL Products : Preserving, Packing, Tr.'usisport, Trade. — 916. Experiments in Potato Storage with Sulphur. — 917. Investigations into the Part Played by the Amy- lase in Potato Tubers. — 918. Experiments in Preserving Broken Eggs. — 919. Sale of Cattle through the Agency of Cooperative Shipping Associations in the United States. — 920. Control of the Sale of Skim ililk. PLANT DISEASES. I. — Generai. information. 921. The Conlrcjl of Field-voles in Apulia, Itaty. II. — Diseases not due to Parasites, or of unknown origin. 922. Measures to prevent Injury by Frost in Catalonia, Spain. — 923. Some Practical Means of Control of Wheat " Stretta " in the South of Italy. — 924. Studies on the Amylase in Healthy Potatoes and in those suffering from " I^af Curl ". — 925. Diseases of Undeter- mined origin in the Tomato, in Ontario. — 926. A New Infectious Mosaic Disease in the Cucumber. — 927. Mosaic Disease in Cucumbers grown under Glass. — 928. Soiu' Scab of Citrus Plants in Florida. VI CONTENTS III. — Diseases due to Bacteria, Fungi and other Lower Pi,ants. 929. Contribution to the Study of the Mycology of I^ metodo » e la sua applicazione alia macera- zione industriale della canapa. Ibidem, Vol. XIII, Portici, Della Torre, 1916. I,. A. >Larchadier. — Rapport sur les experiences du chanvre par le procede Rossi. I,e Mans, Blanchet, 1911. G. Rossi. — Societe Frangaise du rouissage industriel. Publications faites an Bulletin aimexe du Journal Ofiiciel du 3 avril 1912. Paris, Imprimerie Kugelmann, 1913. — Cenni popolari sull'importanza e sull'awenire industriale della macerazione delle piante tessili coi fermenti selezionati. i^re edit. 1907; 2^rnt edit, (aumentata). Portici, Delia Torre, 1908. IL\jMONE. — Ricerche sperimentali sulla decomposizione del legno nel terreno agrario. Extrait de Ibidem, vol. VIII, fasc. V e VI, Sienue, Nava, 1909. D. C.\RBONE e T. Zona. — La cultura monocitogenetica degli schizomiceti . Contributo alio studio della variabilita degli schizomiceti. Xola sperimentale. Extrait des Annali delta R. Sctiola Superiore di AgricoUura di Portici, vol. IX. Portici, Della Torre, 1909. D. Carbone. — Sopra im bacillo macerante aerobico. Prima nota preventiva. Rivista d'Igiene e Sanitd Ptibblica, annee XXV, 1914. D. C.^RBONE. — Sopra im bacillo macerante aerobico. Seconda nota preventiva: esperienze sierologiche. Biochimica e Terapia Sperimentale, annee IV, fasc. 9, 1914. D. Carbone. — Sopra un baciUo macerante aerobico. Extrait des Annali d'Igiene sperimen- tale, vol. XXVI, fasc. I, annee 1916. Rome, Bertero, 1916. G. Rossi. — Processo di macerazione industriale microbiologica di piante e frammenti vege- tali per mezzo di fermenti pectici aerobici, in corrente gassosa. Brevetto italiano, Reg. Gen. vol. 62, n. 88536, Reg. Att. vol. 253-209, 17 avril 1907. Attestato completivo, Reg. Gen. vol. 66, n. 92990, Reg. Att. vol. 267, n. 90, 30 decembre 1907. Attestato completivo n. 98346, Reg. Gen., Vol. 10, N. 98346, Reg. Att. Vol. 283, N. 238, 5 octobre, 1908. G. JL^ss.'UiANi. — Nuovo metodo di lavorazione della canapa e relativa macchina stigliatrice a battitura graduale. Brevetto italiano, Reg. Gen., vol. 73, n. 102041, Reg. Att. vol. 303, 30 avril 1909. G. Rossie D. Carbone. — Processo per migliorare il colore del tiglio, Brevetto italiano, 5-11-907 n. 271. Reg. Gen., Vol. 65, n. 92006. Reg. Att., Vol. 272, X. 4. A. Belluccx. — Un esperimento sulla macerazione della canapa col metodo Rossi. Rivista Agricola e Com,merciale dclla provincia di Ravenna, Xos 7-8, Ravegnana, 1915. La Rivista Agraria, annee XXV, Nos 11-12. Naples, Giannini, 1915. A. G.\sp.\ROLi. — Ancora sull'esperimento di macerazione della canapa col metodo Rossi. Rivista Agricola e Commerciale della provincia di Ravenna, annee. IX, Nos lo-ii. Ravenna, Ravegnana, 1915. La Rivista Agraria, annee XXVI, No 2. Naples, Giannini, 1916. G. Testoni. — Sui nuovi processi di macerazione della canapa. Annali della Societd Agraria della Provincia di Bologna. Bologna, Cuppini, 1909. 1". Venino. — Appunti presi durante il viaggio d'istruzione dei laureandi della R. Scuola Su- periore d'Agricoltura in Milano. Extrait da : L' AgricoUura Moderna, Milan, « Agraria », 1910. B. Neppi. — La macerazione microbiologica delle piante tessili. La Scienza per tutti, annee XVI, n^ 39, ler septembre, 1910. Milan, Sonzogno, 1910. -A.. L- ^L\RCH.\DIER. — Le Romssage du Chanvre. Conference faite a la Societe d' Agriculture, Sciences et Arts de la Sarthe. Le Mans_ Imprimerie Monnoyer, 1911. Th. Briere. — Le Rouissage du Chanvre. L' Agricitlteiir Sarthois {Bulletin du syndicat des Agri- culteurs de la Sarthe), Annee igteie, N° 698, 7 Mai 1911. Le Mans, 1911. J. Bric.^UD. — Le Rouissage Industriel du chanvre dans la Sarthe. La Vie agricole et Rurale, N° 51, 16 novembre 1912. Paris, BaiUiere, 1912. F. P.\DULA. — La Canapa. Coltivazione e macerazione industriale. Ausoniae Hermes, Rivista mensile della Societd d' Incoraggiametito aU'Industria, Annee, I, fasc. VI : IX, Rome, 25 septembre 1914. SECOND PART. ABSTRACTS AGRICULTURAL INTELLIGENCE GENERAL INFORMATIOX. RURAL ^4" " Recent Researches on the Possible Transmission of Animal Trypanosomiasis to HYGIENE Man : the Biological Reactions in Human and Animal Trypanosomiasis with refer- ence to the Identification of the Virus (i). — iC Melting point (in open tube) — 27"C Solidifying point of fatty acids 25.5°C 24.2°C Acid value (i) 28.6 3.1 Saponification number (i) 21 1.6 253.0 Iodine number 51.4 % 13.0 % Hehner value — 88.9 Insoluble fatty acids — 88.6 % Xon-saponifiable substance — 0,3 % Soluble volatile acids (2) — 3.0 Insoluble volatile acids (2) — 7.0 Tabee III. — Percentage coynposition of a cokerite kernel cake, calculated Jor a cake containing 7",, oj fatty substance {4). Water 8.6 >;,^ ( True protein 14.7 Crude protein 15 % „^. ., , , '" / Other nitrogenous substances .... 0.3 Fat 7.0 Starch, etc. (by difference) 52.5 Cellulose 12.6 Ash 4.3 1 00.0 X'utritive ratio i : 4.6 Xutritive units 108 (i ) X'umber of mg. of potash for i gram of oil. (2) Number of cc. of decinormal alkali needed to neutralise acidity in 5 gr. of oil, (3) Prepared at the Imperial Institute. (4) The kernels contained 11.3 % of moisture and yielded 36.9 % of fat. eXPERIMENTAI AND ANALYTICAL WORK 107^^ KXrERIMIiNTAL AND ANALVTICAI. WORK From a comparison witli the oils and cakes of Elaeis guineensis and Cocos niicifera it is found that those of cokerite are almost equal in value. The problem in the utilisation of this fruit is to design a machine by which the nuts can be crushed. Nyassaland Tobacco. — Of late years, tobacco has become the chief export article of Nyassaland. In 1914-1915, 3 308 948 lbs. were exported of a value of £ 82 735 (on the spot). This figure is slightly below that of the previous 3^ear. In 1915-16, tobacco growing covered 9042 acres. Al- most the whole of the exports go to the United Kingdom. The average unit production was rather low in the last period of 6 years ; if ranged be- tween 305 lbs. per acre in 1912-1913 and 520 lbs per acre in 1910-1911. The district of Blantyre furnishes nearly ^j^ of the production. The varieties most grown are : " Gold Leaf ", " Warne ", " Conqueror " and " Whitt Stem Orinoco ". From experiments carried out in the last 2 years by the Nj^assaland Department of Agriculture, it results that " Gold Leaf " is per- haps the best adapted variety for the greater part of the Nyassaland tracts where tobacco is grown. It is of good cropping power and seems to posses the largest proportion of light coloured leaves. Twelve varieties of tobacco were cultivated in 1914-1915 at the Government of Nyassaland Experi- mental Station. The crop samples sent to the Imperial Institute contained : from 12.5 to 14.7 % of moisture, from 1.8 to 3 % of nicotine, from 1.8 to 2.9 % of nitrogen, from ii.o to 12.8 % and in one case, 18.2 % of ash. They were valued (October 1915) at from 4 d. to 7d. per lb. The ash always con- tained a good deal of potash, a few sulphates and a few chlorides. The burn- ing qualities of the tobacco are excellent. Uganda Coffee. — Coffee cultivation is making rapid strides in Uganda. It is the chief crop of farms under European management, on which Coffea arahica occupies 9551 acres and Coffea rohiista 367 acres. Coffee is inter- planted with Hevea brasiUensis, which covers 4835 acres (the greater portion of this area is planted with trees under 2 years old); it is also cultivated at the different Missions, over an area of about 660 acres, and by the natives on an area of 8692 acres (estimated). These figures relate to 1914-1915, in which years 1 8998 cwt of coffee in the parchment (unhusked) of a value of £35463 were exported. Two samples sent to the Imperial Institute for exam- ination were estimated after husking at 54 s. to 55s. per qwX. in London (December 191 5). Drugs supplied by African Solanaceae. — The percentage of hyoscyamine (with which it is easy to prepare isomerous atropine, now rare on the market), was determined at the Imperial Institute in spe- cimens of Hyoscvamus midicus coming from the vSoudan, and Datura Stra- monium from Egypt, the vSoudan and South Africa. The results were as shown in Table IV. Wliile the seeds of D. Stramonium from the Soudan are of no industrial value for the extraction of hyosc)''amine, the leaves of the same species com- ing from vSouth Africa are well adapted for this purpose. In all cases, the total alkaloids were constituted almost exclusively by easily crystallisable hyoscyamine. KXPKRIMENTAI, A YD ANALYTICAL WORK IO79 Table IV. — Total percentage of alkaloid in the samples of Hyoscyamus and Datura [percentage of dried substance). Hyoscyamus muticus : leaves and stalks 0.770 % Datura Stramonium from EgJ'pt : stalks and fruits .... 0.138 " " " " leaves 0.320 D. Stramonium from the Soudan : stalks, and fruit cases . 0.130 " " " " " seeds 0.096 D. Stramonium from South Africa : leaves o-540 Medicinal and poisonous plants from South Africa (i). — A summary of the results hitherto obtained at the Imperial Institute from a study of the following species : — Senecio latifolius, producing the " Molterno disease " in livestock ; — Acokanthera venenata ; Ornithoglossum glaucum (« Cape Slangkop ») a poisonous pasturage plant ; — Homeria pallida, causing great losses of livestock yearly in the Transvaal ; — Crotalaria Burkeana, causing the disease known as " stiff sickness " in livestock ; — Chailletia cymosa (= Dichapetalum cymosmn), known in S. Africa as " Gift-blad ", one of the South African plants most injurious to cattle ; — Strychnos Henningsii : in Eastern Pondoland, by infusing the bark of this plant in alcohol, bitters are prepared which are used as an aperient ; the bark and the fruits contain a still unidentified alkaloid ; — ■ Gonioma Kamassi which contains alkaloid in its bark ; Mesemhryanthemun Mahoni — the roots of which contain a large proportion of oxalates, a yeast (Tcrula), and the moulds Mucor erectus, Aspergillus oryzae, as well as Rhopalocystis nigra {= Aspergillus niger), are used in the preparation of an intoxicating and poisonous liquor by the natives of the Transvaal and as yeast for bread by the whites ; — Raphio- nacme divaricata : its roots yield by fermentation an intoxicating and poison- ous liquor employed by the natives ; — Datura Stramonium ; — Barosma venusta — - Kaempferia Ethelae, the dried tubers of which are used in the popular medicine of the Rand natives ; — Bersana Tysoniana — the bitter bark of which is used as a drug by the natives ; — Chrysophyllum viridi- folium and similar species : from their bark a substance resembling saponin is extracted ; — Urginea Burkei — which causes heavy losses of livestock in South Africa ; — Buxus Macowani : its wood, known as " South African box- wood " or " Cape boxwood " is adapted for turning and wood carving work like that of B. sempervirens, when certain precautions are taken in cutting and drying it. It abounds in the forests of Alexandria, Cape Province, and still more in those of Transkeian. Trinidad Silk. — A first attempt at silkworm breeding was made in Trinidad in 1868, in which year Attacus ricini was introduced and suc- cessfully reared in that island. In 1^93 there werre imported: Anthe- raca pernyi ; Attacus cynthia ; Telea polyphemus ; Callosamia promethea. The first named was successfully reared on leaves of Terminalia Catappa ; the second on leaves of the castor oil plant ; the cocoons obtained were smaller than those imported ; the other two were not successful. Further trials prove that Attacus cynthia can be acclimatised in Trinidad. Bom- hyx mori was imported there in 1907. Up to now its rearing has been ra- (i) See also B. March 1915, N" 246. [Ed.) io8o son, PHYSICS, CIIKMISTRY AXD MICROBIOLOGY ther limited ; it has not been attacked by any disease ; two breeds are rear- ed, one with yellow, the other with white silk. Crosses between these two have also been made. In Trinidad there is a wild silkworm, Attacus Hesper- us, which feeds on the leaves of Casearia sp. ; it can be reared artificially^ but the moths must be enclosed in cages for mating and oviposition. Specimens of cocoons of Bomhyx mori (yellow and white), Attacus ri- cini and Attacus hesperus examined at the Imperial Institute were found to be of good quality. There is no doubt that silkworm rearing can be successfully established in Trinidad. Of the different species there tested, those yielding the best results are Bomhyx mori, and especially Attacus ricini, which stands higher temperatures and furnishes more easily handled cocoons. SOIL PHYSICS, CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOLOGY CROPS AND CUIvTIVATION. 842 - On the Origin ofRedSoil". — Manasse E., in GiomalediGeologia Pratica. Xlllth Year, Part IIl-IV, pp. 101-103. Parma and Pisa, 1915 (i). Trial analyses were made of two red soils from the " Montagnola " of Sienna, namely, a complete analj^sis, treatment with hydrochloric acid in the presence of kaolin, attack by sulphuric acid, solubility in hot dilute potassium hydroxide. From these experiments it would appear that : i) the alumina to a fairly large extent, almost the whole of the ferric oxide, a smaller proportion of the silica, and the slight amoiint of sesquioxide of manganese present, are in the form of colloidal hydroxides in the two red soils ; 2) the rest of the alumina is mostly in the state of clay (kaolin,) but also to a lesser extent in the form of silicates of aluminium, potassium and sodium with and without iron and magnesium (micaceous minerals ?) ; 3) the excess of silica must be attributed to quartz ; 4) while the lime in the two red soils is due almost exclusively to calcium carbonate, the magnesia is only attributable in part to the carbonate of magnesium, the rest belonging to silicates which are little soluble or insoluble in hydrochloric acid. In conclusion, the two red soils examined did not consist exclusively of a clayey ochreous-quartzite matter as they also contained h^'droxide of iron in the colloidal state, accompanied by geloltydrates of aluminium and in smaller quantities, by silica and manganese. The two Sienna red earths present a great analogy in this respect with those of Croatia, which are considered similar to bauxites from the physical, mineralogical, and genetic point of view. With regard to the genesis of the red earths in question, the Author is inclined to consider them as deposits of colloidal solutions mixed with matters originating from the alteration and weathering of anagenetic, schisto- phylladic, quartzose, etc. rocks which in the " Montagnola " of Sienna ac- company cavernous limestone, not excluding however the action of fer- ruginous thermal waters slightly impregnated with manganese and charged with carbonic acid gas. (i) vSee Vinassa de Regiiy P., " Red Soil ", Bulletin September itjis, pp. 1134-1138. {Ed.) SOIL PHYSICS, CHEMISTRY AND MICROBIOLOGY I081 843 - Researches in Agricultural Bacteriology carried out in Denmark during the Pe- riod 1904-1914. — Christensen H. R. (Director of the State Agricultural Laboratory'). — Communication made to the Internationai Institute of Agriculture by its Correspondent for Denmark, Baron de Rosenkrantz. These investigations were carried out during the period 1905-1909, in the laborator}- of agricultural bacteriolog}' of the Ro3^al Higher School of Veterinary Medicine and Agriculture under Prof. Weiss and, from 1909, in the State Agricultural lyaboratory, the direction of which was taken over by the same gentleman. I. — Tw